As a subject name, ethnology is used first, then anthropology. They used to hit it off. Sometimes ethnology includes anthropology, sometimes anthropology includes ethnology, and sometimes the two are compared. In some areas, the name of ethnology is gradually replaced by anthropology. Ethnology, English ethnology comes from Greek Ethnos and ogia, which means ethnic studies. This term is quoted from the theme of19th century. When French physicist Emper drew up the classification table of disciplines in 1830, he divided it into an independent discipline. Anthropology was first used by German scholar M.Hundlt, which refers to human anatomy and physiological research, and its meaning is different from that of later anthropology. 1839, the world's earliest ethnology society was established in Paris. The program of the society points out that ethnographic research aims to "determine the elements of human beings, their physical structure, knowledge and moral characteristics, language and historical traditions". The French Anthropological Society was founded in 1859. It holds that anthropology studies human life and everything, and adds ethnology to anthropology. 1845, Russian ethnology branch was established within the geographical society, Austrian ethnology society was established in 1894, and German society of anthropology, ethnology and prehistory was established in 1869. Up to now, in continental European countries such as Russia, Germany and Austria, the word human is used to refer to physical anthropology, and its research object is human physical form; Ethnology studies human society and culture. Britain established the Institute of Ethnic Studies in London as early as 1843, and the London Anthropology Society was established in 18663. Anthropology only includes the study of physique and culture. 187 1, the two universities merged into the Institute of Anthropology, and later the part that studied culture was called Social Anthropology. The United States established the new york Ethnology Society in 1842, the Washington Anthropology Society in 1879, divided anthropology into two parts: physique and culture in10/year, and established the American Anthropology Society in 1902. In fact, ethnology, cultural anthropology and social anthropology refer to the same subject. In response to the debate about cultural anthropology and social anthropology, Levi-Strauss, a contemporary anthropologist, pointed out: "Cultural anthropology and social anthropology actually cover the same scope, except that the former starts with the study of technology and things, and then touches on the ultra-technical consciousness and political activities that determine the social lifestyle; The latter begins with the study of social life, and then involves the technical things of expressing consciousness and political activities. Just like the same two books, the chapters are the same, but the order and page numbers are different. " Yang Kun, a famous scholar in China, also pointed out: "The study of human social life is called cultural anthropology or social anthropology, which is what we call ethnology." (Yang Kun: Introduction to Ethnology, Beijing, China Social Sciences Press, 1984, 1 Edition, page 7) Therefore, although the title of this article is anthropology, it is also talking about ethnology.
Anthropology is a young discipline with a history of only 150 years (if it is marked by 1859 published by Darwin's Origin of Species, it is exactly 150 years), but the accumulation of anthropological knowledge has existed since ancient times. The ancient Egyptians portrayed different groups in the pyramids, such as Egyptians, Asians or Semites, southern blacks and western whites. Herodotus, the "father of history" in the west and the ancient Greek philosopher, vividly described the physical characteristics, living environment, language, customs, systems and beliefs of many ethnic groups along the Mediterranean in his masterpiece History. In addition, G.J. Caesar's The Battle of Gaul and C. Tacitus's Germania are also in this category. In ancient China, there were countless such documents. In the ancient documents of the pre-Qin period, the existence of different nationalities such as Dongyi, Xirong, Naman and Beidi has been recorded. Shan Hai Jing describes a large number of nationalities with different physical characteristics in foreign countries, such as "Tonghun", "Tongshen", "Long-armed country" and "One-armed people". The biographies of Xiongnu, Southwest Yi, East Vietnam and South Vietnam in Sima Qian's Historical Records created the writing style of China's minority biographies. Later, there are Twenty-four History, Wu Yue Chun Qiu (Zhao Ye in the Eastern Han Dynasty), Huayang National Records (Changqu in the Jin Dynasty), Schumann (Tang Fanchu), Answering Foreign Generations in the Ridge (Song and Zhou Dynasties went to Africa) and Understanding Qiannan (Ai Qingbida). There are records about foreign countries, such as the Records of Buddhist Countries in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the Records of Western Regions in the Tang Dynasty by Xuanzang, the Records of Mysteries by Zhao in the Song Dynasty, the Records of Island Yi by Wang Dayuan, the Records of Real Wax by Zhou Daguan, the Records of Ying Ya Sheng by Ma Huan, and the Records of Xing Lan by Fei Xin.
/kloc-Montesquieu's enlightenment thought in the 0/8th century,/kloc-the progress of natural science in the 0/9th century, and C.R. Darwin's enlightenment thought; & gt biological evolution theory, 18 and 19 century social evolution viewpoint, etc. , which is the basis of cultural and social evolution thought of anthropology evolution school in19th century. The first school of anthropology came into being in the middle of19th century-evolutionary school (also known as classical evolutionary school or linear/single-line evolutionary school to distinguish it from the later new evolutionary school), which is based on a group of professional anthropologists and has always been represented by them, including E.B. Taylor of Britain, L.H. Morgan of America and J.F. Maclennan of Britain. They think that human beings are of the same origin, have the same essence and have the same psychology, so they have the same culture and the same way of social development, and they have evolved from low to high. Taylor is called the father of anthropology. He is in> Some people think that culture is evolutionary. On the basis of studying the evolution of marriage and family, Morgan constructs the history of family development and puts forward the problem of social evolution. In < < ancient society > > it further developed the thought of social evolution in an all-round way and showed the development process of human beings from barbarism to civilization. Due to the inherent theoretical defects, the classical theory of evolution was opposed by many later schools until the emergence of the new theory of evolution.
Communication schools are divided into German-Austrian communication schools and British communication schools. The former is represented by German Laczer, Frobenius, Greb Nair and Austrian Catholic priest W Schmidt. They believe that human creativity is extremely limited, and every culture is produced once in a central area and then spread. The latter is represented by Rivers, G Eliot-Smith and their student W.J. Perry in England. They claimed that various advanced cultural factors spread from the Nile, the birthplace and center of world civilization, and promoted Pan-Egyptism. Due to the lack of scientific facts, this theory was not inherited later.
The school of history after the school of communication is the American school of history, whose founder is F. boas (also translated as Bao Yashi), and other representatives are his students, such as A.L. Ge Yihao, R.H. Lo, E. sapir, C. Wisler, A.A. Gordon weiser and others. Boas advocates simply describing the specific culture and communication process without theoretical generalization. His disciples openly fought against the theory of evolution. The Primitive Society written by Lowe (1920) totally negates and attacks Morgan's theory of evolution. Although this school is also critical of communication, it basically accepts the theory of communication. Therefore, the academic circles generally refer to the communication school and the historical school as the cultural-historical school.
Sociological yearbook school originated from French sociological yearbook school, and appeared almost at the same time as communication school. The main representatives are Durkheim (also translated as Durkheim) and M. Moss. Durkheim founded the sociological yearbook school in Paris in 1896, so it is called the sociological yearbook school. Their theoretical basis is the positivism of the philosopher Comte. Moss pointed out that society is a "self-regulating" and balanced system, and the function of each element of the system is to maintain the integration and adaptation of the system. He inspired later functionalism and influenced a whole generation of European sociologists and anthropologists.
After the First World War, a functionalist school appeared in Britain, with B.K. Marin Noszky and A.R. Radcliffe-Brown as the main representatives. This school does not attach importance to the study of the history of people of all ethnic groups, but emphasizes going deep into ethnic communities to conduct a comprehensive investigation of the present situation, and vigorously trains and sends students to various colonies for field work. Theoretically, they emphasize the role of culture and think that every culture has its uses in social life. A national community is a whole, and all its social life must be examined from the standpoint of this whole, and all aspects of life are closely related. Functionalism theory had a great influence on anthropology in China before the founding of the People's Republic of China.
Psychological School In 1930s, American historical school was divided into psychological schools. The main representatives are boas students R Benedict and M Meade. They believe that individual psychological activities determine cultural and social conditions. The excellent psychological quality of advanced nationalities creates advanced cultural patterns, while the abnormal psychological quality of backward nationalities can only create backward cultural patterns, so the latter must change their backward cultural patterns with the help of the former. Although this school verbally opposes racism based on different physical forms, it actually advocates that there are differences between national advantages and disadvantages in psychology, which is also a racist view, so it is also called the school of racial psychology.
After World War II, some new changes have taken place in western anthropology. Attitudes towards Marxism and evolutionism have changed, and some anthropologists have combined Marxism with anthropology. Therefore, various new ideological trends have emerged, such as Frankfurt School represented by H. Marcos in the Federal Republic of Germany, Structuralist Marxist School represented by M. Godley in France, Cultural Materialism represented by M. Harris in the United States and Social Life Dialectics represented by R. Murphy. At the same time, it is not as openly opposed to the school of evolution as before. In America, there is also a new school to defend the theory of evolution. American anthropologists rehabilitated Morgan and even regarded him as the father of American ethnology.
The structuralist school is mainly represented by Levi-Strauss of France. He applied the phoneme analysis of structural linguistics to the field of ethnology. By analyzing the structural relationship between natural phenomena, the structural relationship between social phenomena is deduced. British scholar E.R. Leach is also one of the representatives of this school. From the late 1960s to the early 1970s, the influence of this school reached its peak, and then gradually declined.
The representatives of neo-evolutionary school are American ethnologists L.A. White and J.H. Stewart. They defended Morgan and others' evolutionism and put forward their own opinions, such as White's cosmological evolutionism and energy theory, Stewart's multiline evolutionism and so on. Their disciples, E.R. Service and M. Sahlins, devoted themselves to synthesizing their evolutionary theories, believing that "general evolution" and "special evolution" are different aspects of human evolution. They perfected the theory of evolution.
The representative of the school of cultural relativism is M.J. Heskowitz. He believes that a nation's culture, without its own nation and era, will lose any meaning. All phenomena in any particular culture are isolated, non-repetitive and have their own characteristics. Therefore, the cultures of different nationalities cannot be compared, and there is nothing in common between cultures, let alone laws. The value of all national cultures is relative.
The new psychological school is the product of a small-scale revival movement of psychological anthropology initiated in the United States since 1960s, and its representatives include J. Whiting, I. L. julia child, R. A. Levin and others. They have made some new developments on the basis of the study of culture and personality by the old psychologists, and put forward the so-called "cognitive anthropology". This school has a certain influence in the United States at present, and it is a noteworthy trend.