Chapter 15 Animal Movement
1, the movement of animals: it is of great significance to the survival of animals and the reproduction of races.
The habitat environment of animals can be roughly divided into three categories: water, land and air. It is a phenomenon that animals living in different environments adapt their sports to their living environment.
The introduction of aquatic animals includes paramecium, jellyfish, squid, frog and so on. The progress of fish mainly depends on the role of tail and trunk.
Water: the main way of animal movement: swimming (swimming)
Land: crawling, walking, running and jumping.
Crawling: such as snails, red deer, snakes (features: limbs can not support the body)
Walking: like cats, that's enough, elephants, horses. Remember: walking is not a unique way of exercise for human beings (you can walk and run).
Jumping (features: developed hind limbs) such as frogs, kangaroos, fleas, etc.
Air: Types of flying animals: birds, insects and bats (flying by wing membranes).
Note: Flying is not a unique way for birds.
The basic ways of bird flight: flapping wing flight and gliding (labor-saving way) (a pair of wings)
Insects generally have two pairs of wings (flying) (three pairs of feet-crawling, and some hind limbs are as developed as locusts and crickets and can jump;
Some larvae can swim when they are in water.
2, the formation of animal movement:
▲ The exercise system consists of three parts: skeleton, osseointegration and skeletal muscle. (Adjustment of nervous system and coordination with other systems)
▲ The movement system plays the role of support, protection and movement.
▲ Bone structure: including periosteum, bone and bone marrow.
▲ Periosteum contains blood vessels, nerves and osteoblasts, among which blood vessels provide nutrition for bones, and osteoblasts are related to bone length and fracture repair (bone length and thickness are related to regeneration).
▲ Bone includes dense bone and cancellous bone.
Bone mineral density: the bone tissue located in the peripheral part of the backbone is dense, hard and white, and has strong compression resistance;
Osteosarcoma: the bone tissue located at the inner side of the diaphysis and metaphyseal end, honeycomb (containing red bone marrow all one's life), red.
▲ Bone marrow: The bone marrow in the bone marrow cavity and cancellous bone in childhood is red bone marrow, which has hematopoietic function;
The red bone marrow in the bone marrow cavity is replaced by fat, which is called yellow bone marrow, temporarily losing hematopoietic function and restoring hematopoietic function under certain conditions;
Red bone marrow with lifelong hematopoietic function is located in cancellous bone.
▲ Bone growth includes two aspects: length and thickness.
Osteoblasts in the inner periosteum are related to the length and thickness of bone and the repair of fracture. The cells in the epiphyseal cartilage layer are related to the length of the bone.
About 99% of calcium in human body is deposited in bone tissue in the form of bone salt, and bone is the largest "calcium bank" in human body.
▲ Composition and characteristics of bones
Characteristics of organic and inorganic bones in the period
Children and adolescents 1/3 or more, less than 2/3, high elasticity, low hardness, not easy to fracture, easy to deform.
Adults account for about13, accounting for about 2/3, which is both hard and elastic.
Less than 1/3, older than 2/3, less elastic, easy to fracture.
The organic matter in bones is mainly collagen, which makes bones tough.
▲ Joint structure: (combined with graphic memory)
Articular head
The surface of the joint is covered with a layer of articular cartilage.
sucking disc
Joint capsule: It is composed of connective tissue.
Joint cavity: there is synovial fluid in it, which can reduce the friction between joint surfaces.
▲ Structural features that make joint movement flexible: the articular surface is covered with a layer of articular cartilage with smooth surface to buffer vibration and reduce friction during exercise. Synovial fluid in articular cavity can reduce the friction between articular surfaces.
▲ Structural features that make the joint firm: there is a joint capsule composed of connective tissue outside the joint head and joint fossa, and the ligament is strengthened.
▲ Every skeletal muscle is an organ, including tendon and muscle abdomen.
Tendon: composed of connective tissue, attached to adjacent bones respectively.
Abdominal muscle: It belongs to muscle tissue and is the contraction part of skeletal muscle, which contains blood vessels and nerves.
▲ bones:
There are 206 bones in the human body, and all the bones in the whole body are connected by bones to form bones.
▲ Physical exercise:
It is formed with bones as lever, joints as fulcrum and skeletal muscle contraction as power.
When skeletal muscle contracts, the traction bone moves around the joints, thus producing movement, which is completed under the control of the nervous system.
Skeletal muscles are mostly attached around joints, and an action is usually completed by multiple skeletal muscles.
Among them, elbow flexion and elbow extension are completed under the coordination of more than two muscle groups.
Remember the special circumstances:
When the arm droops naturally, both biceps brachii and triceps brachii relax; When the arm lifts a heavy object, both biceps brachii and triceps brachii contract;
When elbow flexion, biceps brachii contracts and triceps brachii relaxes; When the elbow is extended, triceps brachii contracts and triceps brachii relaxes.
▲ The energy required for exercise comes from the oxidative decomposition of organic matter in muscle cells.
Chapter 16 animal behavior
1, animal behavior: the behavior of animals under internal and external stimuli. Such as animal movements, songs, body posture or color changes.
Animal behavior: It is regulated by nervous system and hormones and controlled by genetic material, which is gradually formed in a long evolution (natural selection).
According to the occurrence of animal behavior, animal behavior can be divided into congenital behavior and acquired learning behavior.
The simplest learning behavior is a kind of habituation (seeing the change of crow behavior before and after the scarecrow).
2. According to the function of animal behavior, animal behavior can be divided into feeding behavior, territorial behavior, aggressive behavior, defensive behavior, reproductive behavior, rhythmic behavior, group behavior and so on. (Know how to give examples and distinguish)
Note: The essential difference between aggressive behavior and defensive behavior lies in whether they are the same animal.
Remember: animal behavior is conducive to individual survival and racial continuity.
Pay special attention to community behavior (judging whether an animal group is a community: whether there is a leader in the group and whether there is a division of labor and cooperation in the group)
▲ To judge whether a group's behavior is a community behavior depends on whether its behavior serves the group. For example, the "group fight" of worker bees is a defensive behavior from an individual perspective and a community behavior from a group perspective. The same is true of worker bees' foraging behavior.
3, the study of animal behavior:
The main methods to study animal behavior are observation and experiment. (Know how to distinguish)
Understand the steps when doing some experiments to verify a problem:
Ask questions (assumptions)-design experiments according to assumptions-observe and record experimental phenomena-analyze experimental phenomena and draw conclusions through reasoning.
Then, in order to reduce contingency, a control group is usually set up.
▲ Animal behavior research case:
Fabres's research on insects (mainly observation) (French entomologist)
Frish's research on the color perception of bees (experimental method) (Austrian zoologist, outstanding scholar of animal behavior)
-Verify the color vision of bees through color cards.
Study on Dinbergen's feeding behavior of young gulls (British Dutch zoologist)
Lawrence's research on the learning behavior of Xiao Ye geese (Austrian scholar, "father of modern animal behavior")
▲ The essential difference between observation method and experiment method: whether to exert external influence on the research object (animal).
Connection: experimental method is based on observation method, and the two are inseparable.
Chapter 17 Animals in the Biosphere
There are about 6.5438+0.5 million known animals in the biosphere. There are more than 6,300 species of vertebrates in China, accounting for 14% of the world's vertebrate species.
1, the main role of animals in the biosphere:
A promotes the material circulation of the biosphere (it will directly or indirectly feed on green plants, so it is called a consumer)
B positive effect on plants: help plants spread pollen, make plants fertilize smoothly, and promote plant growth and reproduction.
C plays an important role in maintaining the ecological balance of the ecosystem.
Ecological balance: in the ecosystem, the number of various organisms and their respective proportions are always kept in a relatively stable state.
Food chain and food web: in a certain natural area, the complex nutritional relationship between predation and feeding of various organisms forms food chain and food web. This interdependent and restrictive relationship between organisms makes the number of various biological populations tend to be balanced, thus promoting the coordinated development of organisms.
Any animal in the biosphere interacts with its habitat. Animals not only adapt to the environment, but also obtain necessary materials and energy from the environment, and can influence and change the environment.
2. Animal resources in China:
Many rare animals unique to China: mammals-giant panda, golden monkey, pronghorn, white-lipped deer and baiji. Birds-brown eared pheasant, black-necked crane. Reptile-alligator. Amphibian-giant salamander. Fish-Chinese sturgeon and Chinese sturgeon.
Giant panda, a mammal, is a first-class protected animal in China, only found in Sichuan, Gansu, Shaanxi and other provinces. Establish Wolong Nature Reserve in Sichuan Province;
Pronghorn, a national first-class protected animal, is only found in Sichuan, Gansu, Shaanxi and Tibet.
Brown-eared pheasant, a national first-class protected animal, is mainly distributed in mountainous areas such as Luliang Mountain in Shanxi and Northwest Hebei.
Chinese alligator, an ancient reptile, is known as a "living fossil".
& Animal diversity includes species diversity, genetic diversity and ecosystem diversity. Among them, genetic diversity is the foundation; The diversity of ecosystems provides habitats for living things.
To protect the diversity of animals, we should formulate protection strategies and take protection measures from three aspects: genetic material, species and ecological environment. The most fundamental thing is to protect the diversity of ecosystems.
Measures to protect animal diversity include: in-situ protection, ex-situ protection, legal education and management. Among them, local protection is the main measure; Ex situ conservation is a supplementary measure; Laws and regulations include: environmental protection law, wildlife protection law, forest law and nature protection outline.
▲ The main measure of in-situ protection is to establish nature reserves.
Chapter 18 Microbes in Biosphere
& creatures in the biosphere:
Producer-green plants (organic matter that uses light energy to synthesize and store energy)
Consumer animals (unable to synthesize organic matter by themselves, directly or indirectly feeding on green plants)
Decomposition-saprophytic bacteria and fungi (decomposing complex organic matter into simple inorganic matter and returning to nature)
▲ Microorganisms:
Single cell: such as bacteria, cyanobacteria (without forming nuclei in the body) and yeast (with eukaryotes in the body);
Cell-free structures: such as viruses. Bacteria include spherical bacteria, rod-shaped bacteria, arc-shaped bacteria and spiral bacteria.
Some microorganisms live saprophytically (such as some bacteria and fungi) and belong to decomposers in the biosphere;
Some microorganisms live in a parasitic way (such as some bacteria, fungi and all viruses) and belong to consumers;
Some microorganisms can produce organic matter by themselves (such as cyanobacteria, sulfur bacteria, nitrifying bacteria), belonging to producers;
Some microorganisms have nitrogen fixation (such as rhizobia and myxococcus).
▲ The relationship between microorganisms and human beings: yeast: brewing (producing alcohol without oxygen) and making bread (producing carbon dioxide with oxygen).
Lactic acid bacteria: the principle of making yogurt (producing lactic acid without oxygen) and kimchi: fermenting with lactic acid bacteria (under anaerobic conditions).
Antibiotics: substances produced by fungi and actinomycetes that can kill bacteria.
Chapter 19 Biological reproduction and development
▲ Human reproduction and development:
Reproduction: the process of producing germ cells and reproducing new individuals (the process of producing offspring and breeding races). This process is completed by the reproductive system.
1. Composition and function of male reproductive system (structural diagram)
The main sex organ (gonad): testis, which produces sperm and secretes androgen.
Accessory organs: epididymis (storing sperm), vas deferens (transporting sperm) and penis (discharging urine from semen).
2. Composition and function of female reproductive system (structural diagram)
The main sex organ (gonad): ovary, which produces eggs and secretes estrogen.
Accessory organ: fallopian tube: transporting egg cells; The location of fertilization (the combination of sperm and egg cells)
Uterus: the place where embryos develop. Vagina: the passage through which sperm enters a woman's body, babies give birth (delivery) and menstruation is discharged.
3, the process of embryonic development:
seminal fluid
Zygote embryo fetus mature fetus
At the end of the second month of the egg cell
& Egg cells are spherical, and the cytoplasm is rich in yolk, which is a nutrient needed for early embryonic development.
& Embryos get nutrients and oxygen from their mothers through placenta and umbilical cord, and discharge waste.
4. Development: Human development begins with the division of fertilized eggs and is divided into embryonic development and postnatal development. Generally speaking, development refers to the stage from birth to sexual maturity (adult) (postpartum development). Pay attention to staging
The prominent features of adolescent development are: sudden increase in height and weight, improvement of brain and visceral functions, sexual development and sexual maturity.
& Family planning, a basic national policy, requires late marriage and late childbirth, and fewer births and healthier births.
▲ Insect metamorphosis includes incomplete metamorphosis and complete metamorphosis.
& The development process of incomplete metamorphosis has gone through three stages: fertilized egg, nymph and adult, namely:
Fertilized egg → nymph → adult. (such as the development process of locusts, crickets, stinkbug, dragonflies and crickets). )
An incompletely metamorphosed insect molts five times in its life and four times in its larval stage.
& The development process of complete metamorphosis has gone through four stages: fertilized egg, larva, pupa and adult, namely:
Fertilized egg → larva → pupa → adult. (such as the development process of silkworms, bees, butterflies, mosquitoes and flies. )
A completely abnormal insect molts four times in its life, all in the larval stage.
& What are the stages of complete metamorphosis compared with incomplete metamorphosis? (A: There is an extra pupa)
▲ The reproductive development characteristics of frogs and other amphibians are: spawning, in vitro fertilization, in vitro development and abnormal development (larvae and adults have great differences in morphological characteristics and living habits).
The significance of male and female frogs' hugging behavior: stimulating female frogs to release eggs and male frogs to release sperm.
In the process of frog reproduction and development, the following items must be carried out in the water: male and female frogs embrace each other; Female frogs release egg cells; Male frogs release sperm; Fertilization; Development of fertilized eggs and tadpoles.
▲ Reproductive development characteristics of birds: oviposition, in vivo fertilization and in vitro development (mainly).
& In the structure of bird eggs (fertilization), the blastoderm develops into a chicken; Yolk provides nutrition for embryo development (blastoderm and yolk are the main structures); Egg white provides nutrition and water for embryonic development, and has another protective effect; Ligaments fix the yolk, air chambers provide oxygen, and eggshells protect the eggs. (Combined with structural drawing)
▲ Sexual reproduction: it is called the process that fertilized eggs develop into new individuals through the combination of bisexual germ cells.
Features: offspring have strong vitality and variability.
▲ Asexual reproduction: the process of developing directly from the mother into a new individual without the combination of bisexual germ cells.
Features: High speed, offspring can maintain the genetic traits of the mother, but the vitality of the offspring will decline.
▲ vegetative propagation of plants:
1, vegetative propagation: including cutting, grafting and layering.
① Cuttings: such as potatoes, grapes, roses and begonia.
② Grafting: such as peach, pear, apple and other fruit trees. Include bud grafting (scion is bud) and branch grafting (scion is branch).
The key to graft survival is that the cambium of scion and rootstock should be closely combined.
Grafting is often used to improve the quality of fruit trees and cultivate excellent varieties.
3 layers: such as oleander and osmanthus.
2, tissue culture:
Principle: Plant cells are omnipotent.
▲ Asexual reproduction of lower animals, lower plants and microorganisms:
① Schizogenesis: such as bacteria, cyanobacteria, amoeba, euglena, etc.
2 budding: such as hydra, yeast, etc.
③ Spore reproduction: such as Rhizopus, Penicillium and Aspergillus.
Chapter 20 Inheritance and Variation of Organisms
Trait: The morphological and physiological characteristics of organisms are collectively called traits. Such as skin color, eyes, height, blood type, etc.
Relative character: Different types of expression of a character of the same organism are called relative characters. For example, human blood types include type A, type B, type AB and type O, etc.
Heredity: The phenomenon that traits are passed from parents to offspring is called (trait transmission). For example, dogs give birth to dogs and cats give birth to cats.
Variation: The phenomenon of personality difference between parents and offspring or offspring individuals is called (personality difference). For example, a mother gave birth to nine children, or even a mother had ten.
Several concepts related to heredity: nuclear chromosome DNA gene
▲ Chromosome: a substance in the nucleus that is easily dyed dark by alkaline dyes (prokaryotes have no chromosomes).
The main components of chromosome are two important organic compounds-DNA and protein. Among them, DNA molecules play a genetic role. Chromosomes exist in pairs in somatic cells.
& Sex chromosome: Sex-determining chromosome. Autochromosome: A chromosome that has nothing to do with sex determination.
The chromosomes of human cells are composed of autosomes and sex chromosomes: male, 22 pairs+XY; Female, 22 pairs +XX
Chromosome composition of male sperm: 22+X or 22+Y; Chromosome composition of female eggs: 22+X.
Giving birth to boys and girls depends on what kind of sperm the egg cell binds to. When an egg cell is combined with X sperm, a girl is born, while when an egg cell is combined with Y sperm, a boy is born.
▲ Gene: A DNA fragment with genetic effect is the smallest unit (basic genetic unit) that determines biological characteristics.
In somatic cells, genes also exist in pairs, located on paired chromosomes, called alleles, including dominant genes (dominant, which will cover the role of another gene and control dominant traits, represented by capital letters) and recessive genes (controlling recessive traits, represented by lowercase letters).
Genotype: the genetic composition of an individual organism, such as aa, Aa and AA. (Note: Only genotypes composed of two recessive genes will show recessive traits. )
Phenotype: Specific manifestations of biological individuals, such as single eyelid and double eyelid.
▲ Trait expression is the result of the interaction between genetic material and environment.
The expression of biological characters is the result of the joint action of genetic material and environmental conditions (phenotype is the result of the joint action of genotype and environmental conditions). For example, a pair of yellow brothers, the younger brother often works indoors and has a fair complexion; My brother often works outdoors and has dark skin.
& Biological variation is a common phenomenon (character difference) in biology, including:
(1) Hereditary variation-the change of genetic material, which provides original materials for biological evolution. (application)
Note: For animals, only the genetic material changes of germ cells (systems) can be passed on to future generations.
(2) Non-genetic variation-the influence of environmental conditions (the result of environmental conditions directly acting on the metabolic process), the genetic material has not changed. As in the example above.
▲ Genetic diseases: diseases caused by changes in genetic material. Genetic diseases seriously endanger human health and reduce the quality of the population.
Congenital marriage will greatly increase the incidence of genetic diseases, and intermarriage is prohibited (consanguineous marriage refers to the intermarriage between men and women who have a common ancestor within three generations). & lt Provisions of Marriage Law >
Genetic counseling, also known as genetic consultation, combined with effective prenatal diagnosis and selective abortion measures, can effectively reduce the incidence of genetic diseases, improve the quality of life of patients with genetic diseases and improve the quality of the population.