The earliest written language-Church Slavic
Czech developed from ancient Slavic. Old Slavic is the common language of guslav people, who live outside the Karbagan Mountains and along the Dnieper and Dniester rivers. Slavs migrated to the present Czech region in several stages in the 5th and 6th centuries. Church Slavic is the first standardized religious and literary language used in Czech Republic, and its appearance is closely related to the spread of Christianity. At that time, Christian priests from the Eastern Frankish Empire mainly preached in Latin in the Czech Republic, which was not accepted by the civilian class, while Slavs' own language and culture only remained oral and did not have their own writing.
In 863 AD, missionaries Cyril/ Konstantin and Metodej from the Byzantine imperial city of Thessaloniki (where Greeks and Slavs lived together) arrived in Moravia, and they founded the Church Slavic language on the basis of Bulgarian-Macedonian dialect. In order to record this language, Cyril accepted the letters of Greek, Hebrew and Latin, and produced a special Heraholis script, thus creating the development history of Slavic written language. Slavic church adopted it as the church language, ranking second only to Latin and Greek. Gospels and sermons have been translated. The Sasser Monastery, built in 10, devoted itself to teaching Slavic language and became the center of Slavic culture. Church Slavic was also the standard language of the first Slavic country, the Great Moravian Empire of the Czech Republic (9th to10th century), and became the standard language of Czech countries under the leadership of the Pukimiser family in the ro century and 1 1 th century. /kloc-in the 0 th century, the Cyrillic alphabet was created in Bulgaria to write ancient Slavic. Today's Russian, Bulgarian and Serbian letters evolved from it.
Slavic culture with strong religious color is flourishing in Czech Republic, and sporadic Czech language can be found in the sermons "Kiev Literature" and "Prague Fragments" written by Gragor. Legends of saints such as Saint Vincent Slav and Saint Ludmila, and a hymn that people often use in church prayers, "Lord, have mercy on us! (hospediane, Pomilujny) "was preserved. The Slavic language of the church created the premise for Czech national literature and folk religious creation. With the disintegration of the Great Moravian Empire, the dominant position of Slavic culture in the Czech Republic was replaced by Roman Latin culture after the N century. Since then, Latin has ruled the Czech Republic as a standard language until1the beginning of the 9th century.
The oldest Czech literature
165438+ Two complete Czech sentences were recorded on the cornerstone of Merseyside Church in Lido in the early 20th century. /kloc-In the second half of the 20th century, Czech names and proper nouns gradually appeared in some Latin manuscripts, called "bohemika" and the translation of words "clausi". A Czech translation of Bible hymns appeared. By the end of 13, two ancient Czech hymns imitating Latin were discovered, namely Song of ostrovsky and Prayer of Sister Gong Hu. At that time, there was no orthography, and Czech was directly marked with Latin letters. Literary creation has gone through two stages: first, it got rid of the dependence on the church and religion, and then the competition between Czech literature and Latin literature formed a coexistence pattern.
Church Slavic, Latin and later German all had an important influence on the development of the early Czech Republic. /kloc-In the middle of the 0/3rd century, Germany's colonization of the Czech Republic reached its peak, and all Czech cities began to implement the Czech-German bilingual mechanism. German became the court language of Vaclav II (1278- 1305) and later became the aristocratic language of Czech Republic. On the other hand, Czech had an influence on Polish during this period, and most religious terms in Czech were absorbed by Polish.
/kloc-Czech Republic in the 0/8th century
With the development of politics, economy and culture, the development of language has reached its peak. Czech nobles opposed the nouveau riche in Germanic cities, which helped to strengthen Czech status. /kloc-in the 0/4th century, Czech became a real literary language with mature forms and diverse genres. Besides excellent religious poems, lyric poems and essays, he also produced the first Czech drama Drug Dealer. Most Latin works have been translated into Czech, which proves citizens' interest and participation in literature. The appearance of citizen literature secularizes literature. Knight literature is very popular, such as The Legend of Alexander. The Legend of santa catarina is an extraordinary poem, and Stini's philosophical prose has the most perfect language, and the theme involves philosophy and aesthetics. Historical works include Darimir Chronicle. The style of official documents and laws can be found in Lu Jinbo's collected works. 1348, the oldest Charles University in Central Europe was established in Prague. Czech became a written language and an official language, and academic works on theology and other professional disciplines came out one after another. The Bible has been completely translated into Czech, which is the first Slavic Bible.
The orthography of this period is called "letter linking", which means using two or three letters to mark some Czech pronunciations (rs-r, chr-c) that are not found in Latin. Czech is very common among nobles and citizens, but Latin culture still affects Czech. The vocabulary of religion and public life mainly comes from Latin, and the vocabulary of urban environment comes from German. At the same time, Czech continued to influence Polish, and legal and teaching terms were borrowed.
Hus Movement and the Development of Czech Language
The Hus Movement at the beginning of the Qiao century added new social functions to Czech, and became a propaganda tool of the religious reform movement as a national language, thus laying a mass foundation for Czech written language and making it popular. 14 1 1 year, Jan Hus wrote Orthography of Czech in Latin, which is the first book to study pure language in Czech. He suggested that the complicated "letter linking method" should be replaced by a new "distinguishing orthography" on vowels and consonants, and only the compound consonant Ch should be kept. The Hus movement broke the boundary between secular culture and religious culture, resulting in the national church. Czech officially left the church and entered the theological field. Hus believers organize schools to give ordinary people the opportunity to receive education and culture. In the fields of nature, medicine and astronomy, Czech has become a scientific language alongside Latin, and to a great extent, it has entered the administrative field, and legal terms have been improved.
The Hus Movement has given Czech literature a new connotation: to create literature in Czech and serve the Czechs. This idea was passed down in the following centuries and became a basic feature of the national concept in the new period. After the Huss War, Czech military terms penetrated into other European languages. Polish began to use pinyin characters. Czech was spread to Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine in the east through Poland. This language is also used in Hungary.
Czech Republic in the period of humanism
The Habsburg dynasty, which was in power from 65438 to 0526, devoted itself to centralization and restoration of Catholic rule, while the civic class respected humanistic ideals. Czech humanism is characterized by maintaining the Czech position won by the Hus movement, insisting on writing in Czech, and further improving Czech. Because Latin has always been the standard language of Czech higher education, humanist writers advocate ancient Greek and Roman culture, and their language, including vocabulary and syntax, is influenced by Latin. The use of compound sentences, complete sentences, participle phrases and compound passives are the most typical language features in this period, and the legal language has reached a high level. Printing technology spread to the Czech Republic and developed rapidly.
The Kralik Bible retranslated by members of the Czech Brotherhood in 1579- 1593 was recognized by later generations for its exquisite words, which represented the superb language level in this period and became a reference for compiling the new Czech language during the national rejuvenation movement. Unify the idioms in grammar, modify the "orthography" and change the points on consonants into tick marks. This "brother orthography" has been used until the early stage of national rejuvenation. During this period, Czech theoretical works and language dictionaries appeared, among which Czech corresponds to German, Latin and Greek respectively. 1534, 157 1 and 1603 published three most important grammar books, which gave a comprehensive introduction and overview of Czech. Natural science works have also emerged in large numbers.
Czech expansion reached its limit in16th century. Polish even influenced the Russian countries east of Poland and became the administrative and cultural language of Slovakia, which influenced the vocabulary and orthography of the first Luzzi Serbian document in16th century.
Czech Republic in Baroque Period
1620 The defeat of the Battle of Baishan made the Czech country lose its independence and the Czech Republic became a province of the Habsburg dynasty. The Habsburg family brought the prevailing Baroque art school to the Czech Republic. Catholicism was declared as the only state religion, most pagan intellectuals, Protestant nobles and citizens fled abroad, and many people in China were deprived of their property and reduced to serfs and poor people. This period is called the dark age in Czech history. The development of Czech culture suffered a setback, and the status of German rose rapidly, gradually becoming the dominant language. Foreign literature in exile continues humanistic creation, while domestic literature creation is manipulated by the church and becomes a tool to promote Catholicism. The creation is mainly oriented to the broad masses of the people, the literary language strives to be close to the folk spoken language, and the humanistic tradition is gradually replaced by Catholic thought. 1677- 17 launched the St. Vaclav Bible to compete with the Protestant Bible in Kralik. With the rise of Latin literature, Czech creation is limited to religious literature. Humanist writers who emigrated abroad, such as Komensky in exile in Poland, gradually lost contact with the motherland. His works and representative thoughts have not been spread in China, but they have considerable influence in Poland.
With the influx of foreign nobles, the status of ordinary Germans and Czechs has gone from bad to worse. Catholic nobles advocated regional patriotism (the motherland first refers to the place where they live) and rejected Czech, which made the Czech Republic lose its nationality and be German. Czech language has withdrawn from the scientific and administrative fields and only exists in folk and semi-folk creations, such as songs, ballads and plays. On the one hand, the grim situation shows that language is on the verge of extinction, people begin to defend this language, and many works have appeared to defend Czech; On the other hand, pure language has been advocated in baroque grammar works since the end of 17.
Czech in Baroque period had no direct influence on the surrounding languages, and maintained its function as an administrative language in Slovakia and parts of Silesia. Baroque Czech grammar contributed to the birth of the first Luzic-Serbian grammar book.
national rejuvenation
1the 1970s to1the second half of the 9th century was the period of Czech national rejuvenation. It has become the only administrative office language in the Czech Republic. With the enlightened reform of Austrian monarch Maria Tracy and Joseph II, especially the abolition of serfdom in Joseph II in 178 1, it is possible to awaken national consciousness, strive for Czech national independence, oppose Germanization and revive Czech language and culture. The core of the movement is the intellectuals and petty bourgeoisie in rural and urban areas, and the main goal is to restore people's attention to Czech and make literature flourish again. At that time, a large number of Czech ancient works, language revival, historical works and newspapers were published, and Czech dramas were staged. Scientific works abandoned Latin and German and were written in Czech. Language was promoted by national revivalists from a tool of daily communication to a symbolic position of national sovereignty. 1774, the Czech academic society was founded, learning from the academic methods of German colleagues, and engaged in various scientific research, especially in language and history.
In order to make Czech equal with other European languages and become an orthodox literary language, it is put on the agenda to determine and compile standardized Czech written language. Dobrovski, a historian and Slavic scholar, pointed out that language and literature are the foundation of a nation's cultural and political development. He devoted himself to improving the status of Czech and played a pioneering role in modern Czech grammar and enriching Czech vocabulary. 1809, he wrote a detailed explanation of Czech grammar in German, which is of great significance. This book is based on humanism and Czech Kralik Bible. Although grammatical rules are different from everyday language, they are generally accepted by the society. "Boai Orthography" was replaced by "Neo-Czech Orthography", Latin letters replaced ancient Gothic German, and Czech fonts were gradually simplified, forming the embryonic form of Czech today, which has been used since the 1940s of 19.
As Czech has penetrated into all new fields of social life, its vocabulary is in urgent need of expansion. Jungmann undertook this important task. He revised medical and anthropological vocabulary with his brother, and his colleague Preslowe shared the arrangement of plant and animal vocabulary. Palacci is not only engaged in the study of Czech syntax and style, but also responsible for the selection of aesthetic and philosophical vocabulary. The neologisms are mainly absorbed from ancient Czech and neighboring Slavic languages (especially Polish and Russian). Derive and synthesize new words according to Dobrovski's grammatical rules without reference; The word formation of the last new word is literal translation. The greatest achievement of literal translation is the eternal five-volume Jiede Dictionary, published in 1834- 1839.
Interestingly, some Czech words appeared in standard Serbian in 1930s and still exist today. In addition, Serbian also adopts the method of adding "hook" to letters in Czech, and also uses letters C, S, Z, S and Z, and Slovenian also borrows this orthography.
Century language development
The Renaissance led to a sharp increase in the number of people actively using Czech, which became the language of social life, although German was still the national language at that time. Language evolves according to its own laws. In addition to the necessary written language and classical Chinese words, daily spoken language gradually entered the category of standardized Czech, and language habits gradually deviated from the current normative rules based on humanistic language, thus forming today's non-standardized popular Czech. The literary level is close to that of Europe, and the long poem May written by Heineken Macha 1834 is comparable to the romantic poetry in Europe at that time, which has high artistic value. Nemtsova's novel Grandmother (1855) became the cornerstone of Czech realistic literature. Literary language began to abandon classical Chinese with outdated words and complex syntax, and moved closer to real daily spoken English. 1858- 1874, the first set of Czech encyclopedias was published. 1880, Czech became an office language with the same status as German.
/kloc-In the second half of the 9th century, linguist Gebauer became a new linguistic authority. He inherited Dobrovski's thought and laid the foundation for standardizing language in the new era. The grammar he founded was directly used in middle school textbooks until World War II. The Czech orthographic rules he introduced in 1902 are also very practical.
With the great development of Czech industry, commerce and banking, new words are constantly expanding. 1882 Charles University is divided into Czech universities and German universities. Some technical terms borrowed from Croatian and Bulgarian in the fields of court, law, economy, music and sports have been added to Czech vocabulary. Czech craftsmen brought some Czech into Austrian German.
/kloc-Czech Republic in the 0/8th century
19 18 The Austro-Hungarian Empire collapsed, and independent Czechoslovakia was founded. Czech became the official language of the country and entered the last few fields controlled by the Germans: military, railway and postal services. With the rapid development of literary language, the style and rhetoric are rich and colorful, and archaism, logic and jargon all appear in various literary works. Poetry was the most prosperous among Czech Neo-Confucianists in the 1920s. Hasek's satirical novel The Adventure of a Good Soldier, which has made great contributions to the world literary world, is the first one. During World War II (1939- 1945), Germany occupied the Czech Republic, and all universities closed, but this did not hinder the development of Czech. On the contrary, the invasion of Nazi Germany enhanced the prestige of literary language as a symbol of national survival, indicating that the development of literary language can be free from foreign invasion. In 1960s, novel genre became the mainstream of literary creation, and a hundred flowers blossomed.
Popular Czech became popular rapidly in the 20th century, and relatively conservative norms and rules clashed with daily oral habits. In the 1920s, a pure school centered on Our Language Magazine appeared, which was in opposition to the Prague School of Language, which tried its best to maintain the concept of modern language and culture. In order to distinguish standardized spoken language from written language, linguists introduced a new concept of standardized spoken Czech in 1930s, which belongs to the category of standardized Czech. The results show that there is no such language level in Czech. After World War II, Czech and West Moravia were gradually replaced by popular Czech, and other parts of Moravia also used local dialects.
The famous Czech playwright Capec (? The word "robot" created by the Apec brothers in his play R.U.R. (1920) went to the world. After 1945, Czech absorbed more words from Russian than German, and turned to American English to receive new words after 1990s. With the changes in politics, economy, living habits and social ways, and the application of new technologies, especially computers, many new things and phenomena have become an indispensable part of people's daily life, resulting in a series of new words that reflect the characteristics of the times or give some words new meanings, and narrow professional terms have gradually become common words. New words are generated by directly quoting foreign words (lease installment, snowboard resistance); Copy word formation; Multi-word synthesis (Sametova Revolution velvet revolution, Dan z pridane hodnotyvat); Derivation and combination; By changing concepts through metaphor and metonymy, Czech and Slovak, as the official languages of Czechoslovakia before the disintegration of 1993, have always influenced and infiltrated each other.