Prague (Czech: Praha, Esperanto: Prago, German: Prag, English: Prague) Prague is the capital and largest city of the Czech Republic, located in Central Bohemia of the country Region, Vltava River Basin. The city is located in the center of the European continent. It has always played an important role in transportation and has very close connections with surrounding countries (especially geographically, it is right between Berlin and Vienna, the two capitals of German-speaking countries). In March 2006, Prague had an area of ??496 square kilometers and a population of 1.183 million. Located in the center of Eurasia, across both banks of the Vltava River. Area is 496 square kilometers. The population is approximately 1.21 million. The terrain is undulating, with the lowest point being 190 meters above sea level and the highest point being 380 meters above sea level. The climate is typical mid-continent type. The average temperature in July is 19.5℃, and in January -0.5℃. The annual rainfall is about 500 mm. Prague has been inhabited by humans since the Neolithic Age. For thousands of years, the section of the Vltava River where Prague is located has been an important link on the trade route between southern and southern Europe. The oldest settlement began in the second half of the 9th century. Prague was the capital of Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV. It connected the castles and palaces built by successive kings and called it Fort Bragg, and built a new city south of the old city. It once became one of the largest political, economic and cultural centers in Europe. In the mid-17th century, it was occupied by foreigners and the economy declined. In the 18th century, the situation in China and Europe was stable and the economy developed again. The railway was opened in 1845, and trams appeared in the 1890s. In 1918 it became the capital of the Czechoslovak Republic. Urban functions expanded and industry developed rapidly. In 1920, the surrounding suburbs were merged to form Greater Prague. During World War II, it was occupied by Germany. Liberated on May 5, 1945, it was rebuilt and planned for the protection and restoration of historical places. The city is divided into 10 administrative districts. On January 1, 1993, the Czech Republic and Slovakia became independent. Prague is the capital of the Czech Republic. Prague is the largest economic center in the country. The industry is mainly machinery manufacturing, and its products include transportation machinery (automobiles, locomotives and vehicles), machine tools, motors, mining machinery, construction machinery, agricultural machinery, etc. There are also chemical industry, textile, leather, printing, food processing, etc. Industry is mainly located in the southwestern and southeastern suburbs of the city. Public transportation is mainly cars and trams, and there is also a subway. There are passenger ships on the Vltava River. There is an international airport nearby. The city has Charles University (also known as Prague University), colleges of engineering, conservatories of music and other institutions of higher learning, as well as scientific research institutions such as the National Academy of Sciences and the Academy of Agricultural Sciences. There are many theatres, museums and art galleries. There are various styles of ancient buildings, including Prague Castle, palaces, churches, etc. Music has a long-standing reputation, and the annual Prague Spring Concert is an important music event in the world. There are many parks and green spaces in the city. It is a European tourist city, known as Golden Prague. Prague is a famous historical city in Europe. The castle was built in the 9th century AD. From 1345 to 1378, during the reign of Charles IV, Prague became the capital of the Holy Roman Empire and the Kingdom of Bohemia, reached its peak, and built Charles University, the first university in Central, Northern and Eastern Europe. In the 15th and 17th centuries, two incidents of throwing people out of the window occurred in Prague due to religious reasons, which triggered the Hussite War and the far-reaching European Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) respectively. After the Industrial Revolution and before World War II, Prague was one of the more industrially developed cities in Europe and held a pivotal position in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. At that time, Prague was also a multi-ethnic city with multiculturalism as its distinctive feature. However, after two world wars, Prague has basically become a city of a single Czech ethnic group. During the Cold War, Prague experienced several world-shaking events: the Communist Party came to power in 1948, the Prague Spring in 1968 and the Velvet Revolution in 1989. Prague is a famous tourist city with numerous buildings of various historical periods and styles, from Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, Neoclassicism, Art Nouveau to Cubism and ultra-modernism, with Baroque and Gothic architecture being particularly dominant. The overall impression of Prague's architecture is that the tops of the buildings are particularly rich in changes and the colors are extremely eye-catching (red tiles and yellow walls). Therefore, it has been known as the "City of a Thousand Towers" and the "Golden City", and is known as one of the most beautiful cities in Europe. one. In 1992, Prague's historic center was included in UNESCO's World Cultural Heritage list. Prague is also one of the cultural centers of Europe. In history, there have been many outstanding figures in music, literature and many other fields, such as composers Mozart, Smetana, Dvo?ák, writers Franz Kafka, Havel, Milan Kundera and others carried out creative activities in the city. Today, the city still maintains a strong cultural atmosphere, with numerous opera houses, concert halls, museums, art galleries, libraries, cinemas and other cultural institutions, as well as endless Annual cultural event.

[Edit this paragraph] Transportation

Bus*** Transportation

Prague’s bus transportation facilities are a complete transportation system, including subways, Trams, buses, a funicular up Pet?ín Mountain and the aerial cable car at Prague Zoo.

The city's subway was put into use in 1974. It currently has three lines, A, B, and C, with a total length of more than 20 kilometers and a total of 54 stations. Trams were opened in the 1920s, including the famous "Nostalgia Tram" No. 91. All these services use a single ticketing system and are uniformly operated by the capital Prague Transport Company (Dopravní podnik hl. m. Prahy).

Railway

In 1842, Prague built its first railway. Prague is the hub of the Czech railway network, from which you can reach every part of the Czech Republic and many places in neighboring countries. Prague has 2 international train stations, and many smaller suburban stations.

Aviation

Prague’s Ruzyne International Airport is the headquarters of Czech Airlines, the national airline of the Czech Republic (Flag Carrier). It is a large international airport with an annual passenger volume of 5 million passengers. Airport. There are a number of cheap flights to and from the UK and other countries every day. Ruzyne International Airport is considered one of the most modern airports in Europe.

[Edit this paragraph] History

[Edit this paragraph] Early history

Since the Paleolithic Age, humans have settled where Prague is located. Around 500 BC, the Celtic Boii tribe inhabited this area, which they called Bohemia. Later, the Germans drove away the Celts and moved to this area. By the 6th century AD, most of the Germanic tribes had immigrated to the Danube River Basin. A Slavic tribe took the opportunity to invade from the west and settled in Bohemia. They are the ancestors of the Czech nation. According to legend, the founders of Prague were Princess Libus and her husband, the farmer Pemysl, and they were named after Pemysl and established the P?emyslid dynasty. Legend has it that the princess made many prophecies in her castle of Libusin in Central Bohemia (confirmed by archaeological discoveries before the 7th century). One of the prophecies said she foresaw the glory of Prague. One day she had a vision "of a great city whose glory reached the stars! I saw it in the forest on a steep cliff by the Vltava River, and there was a man building a house. Cut out the threshold (prah), and there shall be built a castle called Praha. Princes and dukes shall bow before the threshold, and they shall bow to the castle and the city that surrounds it, and it shall be honored. The whole world will praise it for its well-known honor." Whether this legend is true or not, Prague is indeed centered on the High Castle (Vy?ehrad) built in the 9th century on the right bank of the Vltava River. , and gradually formed. Later, another castle was built on the other side of the river, which is today's Prague Castle. Soon Prague became the capital of Bohemia and an important trade center on the north-south European trade route, attracting many Jews. In 973, the city became a parish center. In the 13th century, three settlements around Prague Castle received town privileges. In 1257, a new small town (Malá Strana) was built south of Prague Castle. This was an area inhabited by Germans and had autonomy. The district of Prague Castle (Hrad?any) immediately to the west and north of the castle was granted autonomy in 1320. Prague's Old Town (Staré Mesto) across the Vltava River had gained autonomy as early as 1230.

[Edit this paragraph] Period of Charles IV

In the 14th century, Prague reached its heyday under the rule of Charles IV of the Luxembourg dynasty of the Holy Roman Empire. The eldest son of a Czech princess and John of Luxembourg, Charles IV was born in Prague in 1316 and became King of Bohemia in 1346 when his father died. Thanks to his efforts, the Diocese of Prague was elevated to the status of Archdiocese in 1344. In 1355, Charles was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in Rome. Prague became the capital of the Holy Roman Empire. Charlie wanted Prague to be one of the most beautiful cities in the world. He built Prague into the most splendid city in the empire, and the most prominent building in the city is St. Vitus Cathedral. It was the first to adopt the magnificent Gothic style in Central Europe, and the interior decoration adopted an independent artistic style called Bosch. Mia school. On April 7, 1348, he established the first university in Central, Northern and Eastern Europe, known today as Charles University. It is the oldest university in the Czech Republic and the first university in Germany. In the same year, he also built the New Town of Prague (Nové Město) next to the Old Town and built the Charles Bridge between the New Town and the Lesser Town. He also built many new churches. At the time, Prague was the third largest city in Europe, had a mint, and was home to German and Italian merchants and bankers. Beginning in 1402, Hus, a professor of theology at Charles University, preached in Czech in the Bethlehem chapel, allowing lay people and clergy to receive the Holy Body and Blood together. However, he was ruled as a heretic by the Vatican. On July 6, 1415, he was sentenced to death in Canton. Stanz ordered him to be burned at the stake. Four years later, the first throwing incident occurred in Prague, triggering the Hussite War.

[Edit this paragraph] Habsburg period

Since 1526, Bohemia has been under the rule of the Habsburg dynasty.

During the reign of Rudolf II (1576-1612), the capital of the Holy Roman Empire was once again located in Prague. In addition to his passion for astrology and magic, he also loved art, making Prague the cultural capital of Europe and gathering a group of astronomers and painters such as Kepler. In 1617, Emperor Ferdinand II, a fervent Catholic, came to the throne and decided not to tolerate Protestants anymore. In 1618, another throwing incident occurred in Prague, triggering the brutal Thirty Years' War. In the Battle of White Mountain not far outside the city in 1621, the Czech army was defeated and 27 Protestant nobles were executed in the Old Town Square. In 1648, the Swedish army captured and sacked Prague, and the Holy Roman Emperor moved his court to Vienna. After that, Prague entered a period of depression, and the city's population dropped from 60,000 before the war to 20,000. A fire destroyed Prague in 1689, and the city was subsequently rebuilt. In the 18th century, the city's economy continued to rise, and by 1771 it had 80,000 residents, many of whom were nobles and wealthy merchants. Many palaces, churches and gardens were built in the city, which were generally decorated in the Baroque style. The world has gained a reputation. In 1784, the original four autonomous towns - Hrad?any (located to the west and north of the castle), Malá Strana (located to the south of the castle), Staré Město (also located to the east of the castle, and the castle district) Opposite across the river) and Nové Město (located to the southeast) were officially merged into one city. In 1806, according to Napoleon's order, the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved, and Emperor Francis II gave up the title of Holy Roman Emperor and changed his name to Emperor Francis I of Austria. The revolution of 1848 shook the whole of Europe and also shocked Prague, but was violently suppressed. The following year, the Czech nationalist movement (opposed to another nationalist party, United Germany) began to gain momentum until it won a majority in the city council in 1861. In the 19th century, the city of Prague continued to expand. In 1850, the Jewish Quarter (Josefov) was incorporated into the city of Prague. In 1883, the Vy?ehrad district was added to the city of Prague. The Industrial Revolution had a huge impact on Prague because of the nearby coal mines and steel plants, which were favorable for setting up factories. Bohemia became the richest region in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The first suburb of Karlín was formed in 1817, and 20 years later the population reached 100,000. In 1842, Prague built its first railway.

[Edit this paragraph] 20th century

After the end of World War I, the Austro-Hungarian Empire was defeated, Prague became the capital of the newly formed Czechoslovakia, and Prague Castle became the presidential palace. . During this period, Prague was still famous in Europe for its industrial development. At the beginning of 1922, 37 surrounding autonomous towns were assigned to Prague, and the number of residents increased sharply to 676,000. In 1930 the population reached 850,000. By 1938, Prague's population had increased to 1 million. On March 10, 1939, Hitler ordered German troops to occupy Prague and establish the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. On May 5, 1945, the Czechs in Prague launched the Prague Uprising against the Nazi occupation. On the same day, the U.S. military captured Pilsen, only one hour away from Prague (while the Soviet troops were still on the Moravian border). General Patton attempted to liberate Prague, but was stopped by General Eisenhower. According to the secret agreement reached at the Yalta Conference, Bohemia would be liberated by the Red Army. On May 9, 1945 (the day after Germany officially surrendered), Soviet tanks rolled into Prague. After the war, Prague once again became the capital of Czechoslovakia. Many Czechs sincerely thanked the Soviet soldiers. Soviet troops left Czechoslovakia a few months after the war ended, but the Soviet Union maintained a strong political influence on the Czech Republic. In February 1948, the Communist Party took over the power in Prague. At this time, Prague's long-term active intellectual group could not adapt to the high-pressure control after the war. In 1967, at the Fourth Congress of the Czechoslovak Writers Association held in the city, many writers such as Milan Kundera began to criticize the communist industry. party. On January 5, 1968, the new Czech leader Alexander Dubcek began the political democratization movement known as the Prague Spring. On August 20 of the same year, the Soviet Union and members of the Warsaw Pact invaded the Czech Republic and put an end to the movement. In 1989, after the Berlin Wall fell, the streets of Prague were filled with people and the Velvet Revolution began. Czechoslovakia got rid of the influence of the Communist Party and the former Soviet Union. In 1993, after the partition of Czechoslovakia, Prague became the capital of the Czech Republic. Since then, Prague has been increasingly affected by globalization. In 2000, a protest against globalization broke out with the participation of 15,000 people. In August 2002, Prague suffered severe floods and many parts of the city were damaged. Fortunately the main sights (such as the Charles Bridge) were intact. Other events: At the 26th International Astronomical Union held in Prague, the Czech capital, on August 24, 2006, Pluto was expelled from planet status. This Astronomical Union held in Prague played a major role in Czech astronomy and the world's understanding of planets. "Prague Spring" event In 1968, Dubcek, the first secretary of the Czech Communist Party Central Committee, initiated the "Prague Spring" "Spring" reforms tended to break away from Soviet control.

The Soviet army decided to intervene armedly. In late June, the Warsaw Pact held military exercises in the Czech Republic, but they were slow to withdraw after the exercises. After July, the situation eased. On the evening of August 3, the Warsaw Pact signed a joint statement in Czech Republic, and the crisis seemed to have passed. At 11 o'clock in the evening on August 20, Prague Airport received a signal from a Soviet civil aircraft "Mechanical accident, requesting an emergency landing." There was no reason to disagree. As soon as the passenger plane landed, dozens of Soviet commandos rushed out of the cabin and quickly occupied the airport. A few minutes later, giant transport planes from the Soviet 24th Air Force Army began to land, one every minute. An hour later, a Soviet embassy car led the way, and the Soviet airborne division headed straight for Prague. At the same time, General Pavlovsky, commander-in-chief of the Soviet Army, commanded 4 Soviet armored divisions, 1 airborne division, and 1 East German division from Poland to Prague. (First Western Front) 4 Soviet divisions stationed in Germany and 1 East German division cut off the western border of Czechoslovakia. (Second Western Front) 8 Soviet divisions stationed in Hungary, 2 Hungarian divisions, and 1 Bulgarian army The Soviet Union attacked from the south. (First Front Army from the Southwest) Four divisions of the Soviet-Polish Combined Army attacked the north. (The Third Front Army from the West) At the same time, the Soviet army began a comprehensive electronic suppression of NATO and Czech forces. At dawn on the 21st, the Soviet army occupied Prague, arresting Dubcek. Six hours after the offensive began, the Soviet army took control of the entire Czech Republic. Hundreds of thousands of Czech troops were disarmed, and NATO had no time to respond. This was a typical Soviet front army offensive battle. . Mainly attacking in the west and cooperating in the southwest, the Japanese mobilized 4 front armies, 1 tank army, 4 combined arms armies, 26 divisions, and about 300,000 people. However, due to the excessive speed of the attack, there were reserves in the two strategic directions. No tank army groups were dispatched, only the tanks directly under each group army, division, and regiment were used. There were more than 9,000 tanks.

[Edit this paragraph] 2. Scientists

William Henry Bragg and his son William Lawrence Bragg were famous British physicists. Through the study of X-ray spectra, they proposed the crystal diffraction theory, established Bragg's formula (Bragg's law), and improved the X-ray spectrometer in 1915. The Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Henry Bragg of the University of London in the United Kingdom and his son Lawrence Bragg of the Victoria University of Manchester in recognition of their contributions to the analysis of crystal structures using X-rays. The name Bragg is almost modern. Synonyms for crystallography. Sir William Henry Bragg (1862-1942) was a British physicist and one of the founders of modern solid-state physics. He studied mathematics at Trinity College, Cambridge. , served as a professor at the University of Adelaide in Australia, the University of Leeds in the United Kingdom, and the University of London. In 1940, he became president of the Royal Society. Due to his pioneering contributions in the use of X-ray diffraction to study crystal atomic and molecular structures, he and his son W.L. Bragg shared the 1915 Nobel Prize in Physics, which is unique in history. At the same time, he was an outstanding social activist in the 1920s and 1930s. A leading figure in British public affairs. After X-rays were discovered in 1895, many physicists thought they were a special kind of light—you could use them to photograph nails in wood or bones in the palm of your hand— Its properties should be consistent with the wave, but no one can be sure, because no one has been able to confirm without a doubt that X-rays have the unique properties of diffraction waves. The key issue is that when conducting diffraction experiments, the size of the grating gap should be consistent with the experiment. The wavelength of the object is comparable. A grating of 20,000 lines per inch is suitable for visible light, but X-rays are much more energetic than visible light, which, according to the interpretation of classical physics, means that their wavelengths are much shorter—perhaps only a thousand times the wavelength of visible light. one part. It is simply impossible to make such fine gratings. German physicist von Laue believed that if man could not make such a grating, nature might be able to do it. Crystals in nature are thought to be composed of atoms arranged in a certain pattern, with each layer only a few atoms thick. Laue thought the gaps between these atomic layers might be suitable as X-ray diffraction gratings. But since atoms are a solid made up of atomic layers, the pattern formed at the other end will be very complex, like several gratings stacked on top of each other. Laue's boss, Munich University professor Arnold Sommerfeld, thought the idea was absurd and persuaded him not to waste time on it. But by 1912, two students confirmed Laue's prediction. They fired a beam of X-rays at the zinc sulfide crystal and captured the scattering phenomenon on the photosensitive plate, which was later called a Laue photograph. After the photosensitive plate was developed, they found circular arrangements of bright and dark spots - a diffraction pattern. Laue proved that X-rays have wave properties. "Nature" magazine called this discovery "the greatest and most profound discovery of our time." Two years later, this discovery earned Laue a Nobel Prize. This discovery has two important implications. First, it showed that X-rays are waves, allowing scientists to determine their wavelengths and build instruments to distinguish between different wavelengths. (Like visible light, X-rays have different wavelengths.) But the second area Laue championed bore more fruitful results.

Once a beam of a certain wavelength is obtained, researchers can use X-rays to study the spatial arrangement of crystal gratings: X-ray crystallography became the first detector to study the structure of three-dimensional matter at the atomic level. Humphry Davy, one of the founders of modern chemistry, said a century before Pauling entered Caltech: "In the process of human acquisition of knowledge, the use of new tools is of overriding importance. People in The key factor in the different achievements of each era is not their natural intelligence level, but the various means and artificial resources at their disposal. "X-ray crystallography will become an infinitely powerful artificial resource. The theory behind it is quite simple. Researchers are faced with three factors: X-rays with a certain wavelength, crystal gratings with a certain structure and diffraction patterns - there is a simple mathematical relationship between the three. Knowing the map and the other factor, the third factor can be derived. Many of the original mathematical and practical techniques were developed by the Braggs. Their laboratories in Cambridge and Manchester became the most famous centers for X-ray crystallographic research in the world. In 1912, soon after Laue's paper on X-rays was published, it attracted the attention of the Braggs and his sons. At that time, Henry Bragg was working as a professor of physics at the University of Leeds. Lawrence Bragg had just graduated from the Cavendish Laboratory of the University of Cambridge and stayed in the laboratory to work in scientific research. The theory is not complicated, but in practice, because the diffraction patterns are quite complex, the process of piecing together the crystal structure is quite time-consuming and labor-intensive. Early instruments were homemade and of very unstable quality. The crystals are usually very large and need to be carefully refined, cut at certain angles, and precisely placed to obtain a satisfactory diffraction pattern. If you succeed in obtaining a Laue photograph, you will also need to meticulously measure the location and distribution of each point. Then comes the math. Even for simple crystals, in the era before computers, the calculation of each crystal structure would take months. If the crystal is too complex and the number of atoms contained in the unit cell of the basic crystal structure exceeds ten, then the X-ray diffraction pattern will be extremely complex and difficult to decipher. The whole process is a bit like shooting a piece of decorative wrought iron with a homemade shotgun and then analyzing the trajectory of the ricochet to deduce the shape of the iron. For these reasons, research has been limited to very simple crystals. However, studies of these simple crystals have yielded surprising results. For the first time, researchers have tools to understand the arrangement of individual atoms in crystals and to accurately measure the distances and angles between atoms. The first crystal structure the Braggs solved was rock salt, and the results were unexpected. The entire crystal forms a giant grid, with each sodium ion surrounded by six equidistant chloride ions, and each chloride ion surrounded by six equidistant sodium ions. There are no individual "molecules" of sodium chloride. This discovery shocked the theoretical chemistry community and immediately sparked new thinking about the behavior of salts in solution. Another early success of the Prague laboratory was the discovery of the structure of diamond, confirming earlier chemists' theories that it was composed purely of tetrahedrons of carbon atoms. The Braggs went on to solve the structures of several other crystals, and they shared the Nobel Prize the year after Laue. Speaking of the contribution of the Braggs and his sons to science, we must mention the key role played by X-ray diffraction technology in the development of modern molecular biology. The so-called "X-ray diffraction technology" is to accurately determine the spatial position of atoms in the crystal through the mutual conversion relationship between the X-ray diffraction pattern of the crystal and the arrangement of crystal atoms (each is a Fourier transform). In the early 1950s, Watson and Crick of the Cavendish Laboratory of Cambridge University proposed the double helix model of DNA with the help of this technology. So far, this technology is still the main method for studying the structure of biological macromolecules. Old Bragg is the kind of scientist who on the one hand adheres to the "value neutrality" of science, and on the other hand firmly believes that science will benefit mankind; not only that, as a social activist, "how science can benefit society" has been his main concern throughout his life. action theme. Due to the negative effects of science and technology, his belief may be doubted by some people, but this humanistic tradition has its enduring value, especially the science-technology-business alliance will still dominate human life, at least for the foreseeable future. foreseen future. In life, he looks at the world kindly, favors getting along well, and then goes his own way independently. Perhaps out of shyness, he does not seem to pursue close friendships. From 1904 to 1907, in his close correspondence with Rutherford (some of which ran to 34 pages) we only find discussions about scientific research. He often reads the diary of his predecessor Faraday, just like reading a letter from a friend, and he highly respects and respects it in his heart. This is a "close spiritual relationship." His humility and charity are especially reflected in his attitude towards children. His basic point was: "Children must be free, absolutely free!" Whenever the children asked for his opinion on important issues, he would appear very uneasy, "shifting around in his chair and muttering sympathetically." something, then get up from the chair and try to change the conversation until finally feeling exhausted.” He would say, "Let me think about it," and then, a day or two later, send out a detailed letter of advice that "carefully considered opposing viewpoints." Sometimes he even made bizarre suggestions to demonstrate his neutrality. , trying to let the child "make his own judgments" and "not be bound by his opinions."

Perhaps the most legendary thing is that Old Bragg is a scientist who only started research activities in middle age. In his early years, he "lived as a serious and dedicated teacher until the age of 42" in an unknown university in Australia. On his return to England "he became a scientific spokesman only a few years later". What is going on? The answer is evocative: "The answer may lie in that long and happy wandering life." "Perhaps the busy and happy 20 years spent in Australia are as valuable to a prophet as the years in the desert , gave him time for leisurely preparation. "He had time to discover the principles that guided his life, to organize his thoughts." Completed in one go without any deletions!” His "practical view of religion" is interesting: "You have a good idea, you try to realize it; if the results confirm your idea, then you use this conclusion as a basis for further work. In the laboratory This is true in education, literature, cooking, and any training, and it is true in religion." For him, religious faith made him willing to risk his life assuming that Christ was right and to go through a life-long experiment of charity. Check it out. "Sir William Lawrence Bragg (Sir William Lawrence Bragg, 1890-1971), British physicist. On March 31, 1890, Lawrence Bragg was born in Adelaide, Australia. He and his father both A famous scientist. Lawrence Bragg served as professor and director of the Royal Institution from 1954 to 1966. He was elected as an honorary member of the Chinese Physical Society. He was the fifth director of the Cavendish Laboratory after Rutherford. He made great contributions to integrating and organizing scientific research in different disciplines. In 1915, the Braggs and his son won the Nobel Prize in Physics together for their outstanding achievements in X-rays. Lawrence Bragg attached great importance to scientific education. He has worked, trained and cooperated with nearly a hundred scholars from various countries (including Chinese scholars).