Funeral rites
There are rich records of the funeral rites of emperors in the past dynasties. From the Qin Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty, the funerals of emperors and members of the royal family became more and more complicated and grand. The ceremony is well prepared and filled with sweat. Due to space limitations, only the imperial funeral rituals of the two dynasties in the late feudal society, the Ming and Qing Dynasties, were selected to illustrate and summarize as a typical example to represent the imperial funeral rituals of the entire feudal period.
The funeral ceremony of the emperor of the Ming Dynasty was also called the big funeral ceremony. The entire funeral process can be divided into three parts: the edict, the ministry's meeting and the ritual notes.
The emperor's funeral ceremony in the Qing Dynasty basically followed the Ming system, but combined some Manchu customs and systems with ancient ceremonies.
On the day of the emperor's death, all the books and the royal palace were set up.
After the burial, the Daxing Emperor's Zi Palace was placed in Qianqingguan Wang, Beile, Beizi, Gong, Princess, Fujin and other senior nobles went home to fast. Ministers and officials from various government ministries were required to go home. We stay together in the yamen dormitory to fast and are not allowed to go home. As for the idle officials, they gathered at the Meridian Gate to fast and stay. After the fasting period, civil and military officials below the king are not allowed to have fun, and weddings and funerals in mourning are prohibited. The soldiers and civilians in Beijing must wear tassels and wear plain tassels for twenty-seven days. They are not allowed to marry within one month and are not allowed to have fun (that is, any form of cultural and entertainment activities; mainly literary and artistic performances) for one hundred days. Four Slaughtering is not allowed for nineteen days, and prayers and sacrifices are not allowed for twenty-seven days. Before the service is removed, document tickets will be printed with blue pen and all documents will be printed with blue ink. Since the day of the great mourning in the capital, the bells of various temples and temples have been rung 30,000 times. The next day, a posthumous edict ceremony will be held in front of Tiananmen Square.
Funeral
In ancient times, funerals were extremely simple and there were no tombs in the tombs. As time goes by, the burial places of some ancestors have been lost in people's minds. After entering feudal society, in order to commemorate the many heroes who made contributions to the development of Chinese civilization, people built many commemorative mausoleums and mausoleums based on legends, such as the Dawu (Fuxi) Mausoleum in Tuitian, Henan, and the Huang Tomb in Shaanxi. The Mausoleum of the Yellow Emperor, the Mausoleum of Emperor Yan in Hunan Province, the Mausoleum of Shaohao in Qufu, Shandong, the Mausoleum of Zhuanxu in Gaoyang, Hebei, the Mausoleum of Yao in Linfen, Shanxi, the Tomb of Shun in Ningyuan, Hunan, the Mausoleum of Yu in Shaoxing, Zhejiang, etc. Appeared around the middle of the Warring States Period. However, due to the separation of feudal lords at that time and the scattered manpower and material resources, the tombs were relatively small and there were no mausoleum buildings. After Qin Shihuang unified the six countries, the Qin Shihuang Mausoleum was built in Lintong, Shaanxi today, formerly known as "Lishan" or "Lishan". It took 40 years to build a mausoleum for the emperor, which cost a lot of manpower and financial resources to reflect the feudal imperial power. The majestic approach was followed by successive feudal dynasties. Only the emperors of the Yuan Dynasty were buried deeply after death, and then even if thousands of horses galloped, all traces on the ground were wiped out, making the exact burial place a permanent secret. This was in compliance with Mongolian custom and should be an exception. In addition, most emperors in the Tang Dynasty were buried in mountains as mausoleums, so no large tombs were built. The tall mounds of earth were originally symbols of mountains. In today's China, there are still many tombs of emperors and concubines that can be found or preserved. Famous ones include the Mausoleum of the First Emperor of Qin, the Changling Mausoleum of Emperor Gaozu of the Han Dynasty, the Ba Mausoleum of Emperor Wen of the Han Dynasty, the Maoling Mausoleum of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, the original mausoleum of Emperor Guangwu of the Han Dynasty, the Hui Mausoleum of Liu Bei, the First Lord of Shu, the Yonggu Mausoleum of the Empress Dowager Civilization of the Northern Wei Dynasty, the Mausoleum of Emperor Wenjing and Emperor Wu of Liang. Mausoleum, the Xianning Tomb of Emperor Chen Xuan, the Mausoleum of Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty, the Zhaoling Mausoleum of Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty, the Qianling Mausoleum of Emperor Gaozong of the Tang Dynasty and Wu Zetian, the Tailing Tomb of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, the Tomb of Yang Guifei, the Yongling Tomb of the Great Ancestor of the Former Shu, the Second Tomb of the Southern Tang Dynasty, the Eight Tombs of the Northern Song Dynasty, the Six Tombs of the Southern Song Dynasty, The Ancestral Tomb of Taizu of the Liao Dynasty, the Tomb of the Western Xia Emperor, the Mausoleum of the Jin Taizu, the Mausoleum of Genghis Khan, the Imperial Tomb of Zhongdu in the Ming Dynasty, the Xiaoling Tomb of Taizu of the Ming Dynasty, the Changling Tomb of Chengzu of the Ming Dynasty, the Dingling Tomb of Ming Shenzong, the Siling Tomb of Ming Sizong, the Three Tombs of the Early Qing Dynasty, and the Eastern Qing Dynasty Mausoleum, Western Qing Mausoleum, Tomb of Qianlong Concubine Rong, Tomb of Guangxu Concubine Zhen, etc.
Meeting Ceremony
1. The pilgrimage ceremony of princes. During the Han Dynasty, when princes and kings with the same surname came to court, the emperor often treated each other with the courtesy of family members, and even did not pay much attention to the etiquette of monarchs and ministers when banqueting and talking. Later, during the Taishi reign of Emperor Wu of the Jin Dynasty, it was stipulated that every prince and king should hold a jade in court every three years.
2． The official meeting ceremony.
Firstly, when the ministers see the emperor as a courtesy, they should bow their heads and bow five times. It means to bow your hands first, then bow four times and kowtow once to complete the ceremony. When all the officials see the prince or prince of the East Palace, they bow their heads four times and bow.
Secondly, all civil and military officials in Beijing must come to the palace to say goodbye if they are on leave or on a mission.
Thirdly, when important ministers of the country, especially those who come to Beijing to meet with the emperor, Honglu Temple should give priority to bringing them to see the emperor immediately.
Fourth, civil servants of fourth rank or above, bachelors of the Hanlin Academy, Shangbaosi, Sixth Section of the Ministry of Science and Technology, military attachés, Gonghou Bodudu, and Fuma, Yibin, Jinyiwei commanders and other officials are sick for more than 100 years. For three days, everyone must wear official clothes and go to the Meridian Gate to pay homage. If any of the ministers received medical treatment from the emperor and were given gifts of condolences, or ministers who passed the examination and received gifts, they would have to thank the emperor in person after saluting.
Fifth, when civil and military officials enter and exit the court, they should take photos of their rank to show their respect. Whenever an official of the first or lower rank meets a duke, marquis, prince-in-law, etc., he should salute him, stand beside him when he is standing, and follow behind when he goes. When an official of the third or fourth rank sees an official of the first rank, he should show disrespect when walking or standing. It must be behind an official of the first rank; officials of the fifth rank and below can be deduced in the same way. Unless there is an announcement, no arrogance or disrespect is allowed.
Sixth, when all officials enter the court, they must hold their hands high and conduct themselves in a dignified manner. They are not allowed to greet others in private and salute, and they are not allowed to make noise, spitting, or any disrespectful behavior. After entering the court and after the emperor ascended the throne, no one was allowed to speak, talk, laugh, point, or look around.
Seventh, when all officials enter the court to pay homage and leave the court to get off work, they must follow the principle that civilian officials should be in the east and military attachés should be in the west. They are not allowed to walk directly across the imperial road from east to west. If you are performing homage at Fengtian Gate or Meridian Gate, and you have legitimate reasons to walk east-west, you must retreat to the south of Jinshui Bridge before you can pass.
Eighth, when ministers enter the court, they are not allowed to face the south, whether standing or sitting. Violators will be charged with treason.
Nineth, among all the officials, no one should walk on the middle road or the five roads of the palace.
Tenth, no one, except the emperor, may walk or trample on the three central steps at the main entrance of the main palace.
Eleventh, when hundreds of officials attend court, they must concentrate and listen clearly when encountering the emperor’s edicts and teachings.
The twelfth one met with the emperor and was sometimes given a seat.
Thirteenth, officials who have been given seats must stand up when another official is presenting something to the emperor, and can not sit down again until the performance is completed. They are not allowed to sit unruly and lose their etiquette.
There are also various types of meeting etiquette such as the prince meeting the emperor, the emperor meeting the emperor and the queen mother, the queen and concubines meeting the emperor, the palace attendants meeting the master, and so on.
Weddings
"Tongkao of Five Rites" once said that since the Later Qi Dynasty, regardless of the emperor or the people, weddings "are called Nacai, secondly, Xiangming, and thirdly, Naji. The fourth is the invitation, the fifth is the invitation, and the sixth is the personal welcome."
These are the six stages of ancient weddings, commonly known as the "six rites". The description is as follows:
1. Acceptance: This is the first stage of marriage negotiation. After the man asks a matchmaker to propose marriage, the woman agrees to the marriage proposal. The man prepares a gift and goes to the woman’s house to propose. The gift is a wild goose. Always live. Why use wild geese? Wild geese are migratory birds, and the symbol is in line with the meaning of yin and yang. Later, a new meaning was developed, saying that wild geese lose their mates and will never be paired again for life, so that their loyalty is chosen.
2. Name asking: After the marriage proposal, the matchmaker asks the woman for her date of birth and name to prepare for the marriage. ?
3. Najib: It is a ritual to inform the woman of the good news of the marriage after asking her name. Also called "making an alliance". This is the main ritual during the engagement phase. According to ancient custom, geese are used as a token of confirmation that the marriage has been decided. Later, it developed to use rings, jewelry, colored silks, gift cakes, gift incense candles, and even sheep and pigs, etc., so it is also called a fixed appointment or a fixed appointment.
4. Betrothal gift: after the alliance is made, the groom’s family sends the betrothal gift to the bride’s family, which is a ceremony in the marriage stage. This wedding ceremony is also commonly known as the final betrothal or the big betrothal, the excessive gift, etc. Later, this ceremony also adopted the method of return gift, returning part or all of the food in the betrothal gift; or after being hired, the bride's family would give the man's clothes, hats, shoes and socks as a return gift. The amount of the betrothal gift and the name of the item usually have auspicious meanings, and the number should be double rather than single.
5. Application period: After sending the betrothal gift, choosing a wedding date, preparing the gift to the bride’s family, and obtaining consent. In ancient customs, geese are used as usual, and gifts are generally simple. The wedding gift is often combined with the betrothal gift, and the wedding date is determined at the same time as the wedding gift.
6. Welcome: This is the ceremony where the new son-in-law goes to the daughter’s home to welcome her. This ritual is often regarded as the main procedure of a wedding, while the first five items are regarded as transitional rituals such as marriage proposals and engagements. Some of these forms are due to the needs of social relationships, such as "adding makeup" at the girl's house, "opening the bow" and "making wedding arrangements" when arriving at the boy's house, etc., which are all rituals for establishing social relationships.
It is purely a wedding part of the ceremony. Generally, a sedan chair is used, which can be divided into double or single roof. The "brother-in-law" who helps the bride to get on the sedan, and the "welcome guest" who accompanies the groom to the bride's house to pick up the bride, each have their own requirements. , returning the carriage and horse, welcoming the sedan, getting off the sedan, worshiping the heaven and earth, performing the wedding ceremony, entering the bridal chamber... Each process has several to more than a dozen forms, most of which express wishing good luck and exorcising evil spirits. The season for wedding is generally chosen in spring, when the state is based on agriculture, which coincides with the slack season and a good harvest, which is a good time for marriage.
After the "six rites" of marriage, the transitional period begins, when the bride returns to her natal family's "Guining" until the bride enters the childbearing period, and the birth ceremony of the second generation is held again. From then on, the wedding was only regarded as a family anniversary, celebrated on an anniversary basis (a grand celebration ceremony was held when a "60th birthday" was reached, called a bigamy ceremony), and was celebrated year after year until the end of the year. In foreign countries, a silver wedding is held after twenty-five years of marriage. Fifty years of marriage is a golden wedding. These are the memorial ceremonies of the wedding.
The ceremony of issuing the imperial edict and the ceremony of honoring the emperor
1) The ceremony of issuing the imperial edict. The issuance of edicts, including the ceremony when the emperor or the queen mother issued decrees and Wen Hao. There are many types of imperial edicts, mainly including edicts of passing the throne, edicts of enthronement, edicts of changing the Yuan Dynasty, edicts of crowning, edicts of leaving the cabinet, edicts of granting confirmation, edicts of etiquette, edicts of inspection, edicts of southern suburbs, edicts of northern suburbs, edicts of sealing and sealing, and edicts of visiting temples. Attached temple edict, attached burial edict, gift edict, recovery edict, homestead edict, derogatory edict, deposed edict, demoted edict, legacy edict, superior title edict, li prince accepts concubine edict, orders the crown prince to supervise Guoyu, the eldest son of the emperor Birth edicts, summoning the crown prince to visit friends to listen to political affairs, edicts for leaving the palace, edicts for sinning, restoration edicts, abdication edicts, etc. Various edicts have their own specific content. For example, the edict of succession is an edict of the nature of the succession of the throne, which refers to the edict issued by the emperor when he passed the throne to the new king during his lifetime; the edict of enthronement is the edict that the emperor issued to his subjects when he ascended the throne. The promulgated document is also called the "Accession Document". The contents of the edicts are different, so I will not describe them one by one here. I will only briefly introduce some of the different rituals for issuing the edicts.
In the 26th year of Hongwu in the Ming Dynasty (1393), the imperial edict was first formulated. A throne was set up in the Fengtian Hall, and a treasure case was set up in the east of the hall. There was a band in the hall, ready to play Zhonghe rhyme music, and the big music was outside the Meridian Gate and Chengtian Gate. There is a reading table on the Chengtian Gate, facing the southwest. In the early morning, the school captain held up the cloud cover and stood in front of the curtain in the palace. Hundreds of officials in court uniforms stood outside the Chengtian Gate, while the dukes and marquis stood outside the Meridian Gate, facing east and west. The emperor wore leather clothes and ascended to the palace. Its rituals are like court rituals. The official of the Ministry of Rites came to the case with the edict in hand, stamped it with a national seal, and placed the edict in the cloud cover. The captain held up the cloud cover and went out through the east gate of the palace. Music was playing in unison outside the gate, and the captain who issued the imperial edict went from Fengtian Gate to the Meridian Gate south of Jinshui Bridge. The Duke and the Marquis led the way to Chengtian Gate. The ceremonial officers sang praises, the singing group was arranged, the civil and military officers took their seats, the music started again, everyone bowed four times, and the music stopped. The announcement of the promotion of the reading officer and the exhibition reading officer were said to be "systematic", and all the officials knelt down when they heard this. The official of the Ministry of Rites handed the edict to the officer who read it. After the reading was completed, he handed the edict to the officer of the Ministry of Rites and placed it in the cloud cover. The master of ceremonies praised: "Prostrate yourself." All the officials prostrated themselves and saluted, saying "Pingshen!" He stood up and returned to his original position, bowed four times, and stopped happily. The civil and military officials danced again, shouted "Long Live Long Live" three times, and bowed four times. The Department of Ceremonies announced: "The ceremony is over! The emperor got up and left the palace. The officials of the Ministry of Rites held up the edict and handed it to the envoy. The officials resigned.
In the sixth year of Mingliangjing (1527), the edict was issued. Several modifications were made. The Honglu official set up the treasure case, the Jinyiwei set up the cloud cover plate on the east side of Fengtian Hall, and set up a cloud plate on the Chengtian Gate. A colorful bridge was set up outside the Meridian Gate, and the reading case was also set up. At the Chengtian Gate, hundreds of officials stood in attendance, the emperor ascended to his throne, and officials from the Hanlin Academy stood in front of the throne in front of the imperial edict. The official gave the edict to the official of the Ministry of Rites, who placed it on the cloud cover. The cloud cover was held by the school captain. The group went out from the east gate of the palace and went to the Meridian Gate and placed the edict in the colored sedan chair. The superior officer of Bo Sanpin was the first to welcome the edict to the Chengtian Gate and read out the praises. After the reading was completed, the officials of the Ministry of Rites handed the edict to the imperial guards and placed it in a cloud box, which was tied with a colorful rope. Tied to the dragon pole, it was lowered from the Chengtian Gate. The officials of the Ministry of Rites took the edict, placed it in the Dragon Pavilion, beat gongs and drums, and escorted it to the Ministry of Rites for issuance.
Introduced above. The first is the edict-issuing ceremony, so what is the ceremony for welcoming the edict? During the Hongwu period, there were also etiquette regulations for this link. Whenever an envoy was sent to read the edict, the department receiving the edict should prepare a dragon pavilion, ceremonial guards, drums, and go out to welcome the edict. The messenger who delivered the edict dismounted, placed it in the dragon pavilion, and stood facing south. The officials who received the edict put on their court clothes and bowed five times.
Then, with all the officials and the band leading the way, the envoys mounted their horses
Following Longting, they came to the Gongsi Yamen together. The officials went in first, lined up in the hall according to the principle of Wen Dong and Wu Xi, and waited for Longting to enter. As soon as you arrive at the Dragon Pavilion, you must bow four times. After the envoy entered the house, he handed the edict from the dragon pavilion to Zhandu Palace. Zhandu Palace took it on his knees and walked to the opening table to read the edict. After reading it, he returned the edict stick to the envoy and found it in his old friend's Long Pavilion. All the officials bowed four times, danced and shouted, and then bowed four more times and completed the ceremony. The head of the department walked to the Dragon Pavilion and knelt down to ask the emperor for blessings. The imperial envoy bowed and replied: "Blessings for the emperor." The officials retired, changed out of their court uniforms, and went out to meet and entertain in official uniforms. Messengers, both parties bowed twice when they met.
Whenever an envoy from the imperial court is on his way to deliver an edict, whether he is an official, a soldier, or a common person, he should immediately prostrate himself by the roadside and wait until the edict-delivery team has passed before he can get up.
The above is the outline of the ceremony of issuing and receiving edicts. In addition to edicts, the emperor issued orders in other forms, such as salvation talismans, alchemy talismans, metaphors, hand edicts, etc. Most of the transmission of these documents was not done publicly, so there was no grand ceremony.
In the Qing Dynasty, imperial edicts were first written in Manchu, Mongolian and Chinese, and later changed to Manchu and Chinese. In the Hall of Supreme Harmony, a yellow cover, a cloud plate, an edict case, and a yellow case were set up; outside the Meridian Gate, a dragon pavilion and an incense pavilion were prepared; a cloud and golden wind were prefabricated in the pheasant mouth on Tiananmen Gate, and a platform for announcing the edict was built in the east. The cabinet bachelor issued an imperial edict and printed the national seal, which was laid out on Huang's desk. When the emperor entered the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the princes, princes and ministers paid their respects, and the great scholar handed the edict to the Minister of Rites under the palace trough. The minister knelt down to receive it, and displayed it on the edict table of Lord Dan. After the ceremony, the edict was placed in the cloud disk and covered with a yellow cover. The Rites Palace held the cloud disk and walked out of the Gate of Supreme Harmony from the middle road. The officials walked to the Meridian Gate and placed the cloud disk in the Dragon Pavilion. Longting came to the south of the bridge outside Tiananmen Square, took out the cloud disk and placed it on the yellow table on the high platform. The civil and military officials lined up according to rank and stood to the north. The text was read in Chinese later. After reading, all the officials knelt three times and kowtowed nine times. The official who served the imperial edict loaded the imperial edict with a cloud, tied it with a colorful rope, and lowered it from the golden wind port on the Tiananmen Tower. The official of the Ministry of Rites took the imperial edict from the cloud and put it into the Long Pavilion. Gongwei Longting left the Qing Gate and went to the Ministry of Rites. The Minister of Rites led his subordinates to look at the incense table at the palace to greet the edict. After the Ministry of Rites received the edict, it was copied and printed in yellow characters and issued to all provinces.
2) Put on the meter. The so-called above tables here include not only tables, but also writings such as notes, memorials, notes, seals, inscriptions, books, and ultimatums. Regarding the writing methods and styles of various literary styles, it belongs to the scope of discussion of literary studies or stylistics. Here we only describe some etiquette when princes, ministers, civil and military officials make speeches to the emperor or the queen mother. As for the different styles of memorials, The format is only incidental when it comes to liturgical content. In view of the fact that the etiquette of the Ming Dynasty has the characteristics of being inherited from the Tang and Song Dynasties and inspired by the Manchu and Qing Dynasties, and its rules and regulations are very typical of the Han nationality's feudal dynasty, we will still take the Ming Dynasty's ritual ceremony as an example to summarize.
When the ministers of the Song Dynasty presented themselves to the court, the general situation was as follows: the garrison was located second to the court, the civil servants were in the east, and the military officers were in the west, relatively leading; the Zhongshu Ling was located to the north of the ministers. The officials of the Ministry of Rites brought in the table and brought in the order, and then stood in the south. The doctor of the Ministry of Rites handed the watch to Zhongshu Ling, who presented the watch to the emperor. Whenever there is a major court ceremony, the prime minister will lead the civil and military ministers, military generals, tribal leaders of various countries, Taoist monks, and elders of the people to wait until the east gate of the pavilion to pay homage to the palace. The envoys and envoys of the pavilion were handed over to Tongjinsi, and the Tongjinsi was handed over to the emperor. When the officials of the Song Dynasty went to the table, there must be an important official as the "head of the table", that is, the leader of the table. Some believed that the Prince's Third Division should be the leader, while others believed that the chief minister should serve as a servant, and finally decided to use Pu She is the leader because he is the commander of hundreds of officers and the foundation of hundreds of officials.
In the Ming Dynasty, there were many forms of paying tribute, such as the writing ceremony, the jade certificate ceremony, the book signing ceremony, the congratulating ceremony, the thanking ceremony, etc., which were very detailed and specific. First, let’s talk about the table entry ceremony.
Customized in the early Ming Dynasty, when the palace met the three major festivals such as Zhengdan, Winter Solstice, and Christmas, the furnishings were prepared in advance. When ready, the vassal king took his crown and bowed four times, knelt down in front of the incense table, and entered. After the table, reset, pray four times, dance three times, shout long live three times, and pray four times again. The subordinate officials also wore court uniforms and saluted with the class. If you are entering the queen's palace, the ceremony is the same except that there is no dancing and the mountain calls for divination; if you are entering the crown prince's palace, the king will wear leather clothes and passersby will pay homage.
In each yamen, hundreds of officials submit notes. There are only regulations and no rituals. It was decided during the Hongwu Period. The day before entering the yamen, the festivities were placed in the streets near the yamen and public houses, and the officials rested and rested in their own yamen. In the early morning of the morning of the entry day, a dragon pavilion is set up in the court, and a guard of ceremony and drum music are set up on the terrace. A table is placed in front of the dragon pavilion. At the beginning of the drum, all officials put on their court uniforms. For the second time, the leader went to the incense table, stamped the official seal on the table, placed the table on the table, and then retired to set up the ceremony. Drum three strict, each officer enters the class, bows four times, the chief comes to the incense table, the praise officer calls "kneeling", all the officials kneel, a deacon kneels and hands the note to the chief, the chief kneels and hands it to the officer who enters the table, and the officer who enters the table kneels He knelt down to take it and put it into the dragon pavilion. When the chief returns to his position, each official bows four times, dances three times, shouts three times, and bows four times. The gongs and drums lead in front, followed by the honor guard, followed by the drums, followed by hundreds of officials. After the hundreds of officials, they enter the Biaoguan and Longting. When they arrived at the outskirts, they faced the dragon pavilion to the south. The ceremonial guards and drums were arranged as mentioned above. Civil and military officers stood in attendance. The chief took out the form of writing from the dragon pavilion and handed it to Officer Jin. Officer Jin took the form on his horse and rode on. He rushed to the capital palace and the officials returned.
The Ming Dynasty stipulated the quantity, procedures and dates for entering and uploading tables. For example, in the twenty-sixth year of Hongwu (1393), it was decided that on the emperor's birthday, only one inscription for the five-rank or above yamen outside the capital would be entered; there would be one inscription for Zhengdan, Winter Solstice, and one inscription for the emperor, one for the middle palace, and one for the east palace. For the local provincial first-level yamen, the official letter will be sent to the Ministry of Etiquette
The official documents from each state were first handed over to the government, and each government then handed them over to the Chief Secretary. The Chief Secretary finally sent them to the Ministry of Gifts. The Ministry of Rites made a catalog of the official documents received from all over the country and reported them to the emperor, empress, and princes of the palace. on all forms.
The speaker said that when the church was going smoothly, internal disputes suddenly occurred, and everyone argued over liturgical issues, which greatly affected the church. It cannot be said to be a misfortune not caused by the church. In fact, the origin of this problem began when the Jesuits first entered China. In order to facilitate the promotion of his teachings, the Jesuit Matteo Ricci always tried to cater to China's inherent customs and habits, so he initially wore monk clothes, thinking that this would prevent him from being discriminated against by the Chinese. Later he realized that monks were not recognized by society. Paying attention to it is to change it into the attire of a Confucian scholar. Matteo Ricci believed that all habits that did not hinder the fundamental beliefs of Christianity might as well be accommodated. Therefore, he is not very stubborn about the title of God or the issue of respecting Confucius and worshiping ancestors. Because at that time, Christianity first entered China, it was difficult to decide on the terms used in religion. The name of God was originally transliterated as Deus because a new appropriate term could not be found. In the past, Islam, Judaism, Nestorianism, etc. all had difficulty with this. Therefore, Matteo Ricci initially used the word "God". Later, he saw from ancient Chinese books that the name Tian or God was used by ancient Chinese sages to refer to the Lord of heaven and earth, so he changed his original intention and used Tian or God instead of God. Later, I read Zhu Xi's explanation of heaven, saying that heaven is just a kind of principle: God does not need to be the only ruler of heaven and earth. He also uses God or God together. This led to a later controversy, that is, one group of people advocated that only God can be used, but not heaven and God. The Jesuits thought that three words might be used together, because the ancient Chinese used this to mean the master of heaven and earth. This issue is highly debated. Later, similar discussions occurred in the translation of the Bible among Protestants, with some advocating replacing God with the word “divine”. Until now, some Bible covers still have the word "god" or "god" written on them, indicating that the book translated GOd as "god" or "god", but it was not as serious as the Catholic Church at that time. The second question is: Is it sinful to worship ancestors and worship Confucius? Is it absolutely forbidden for Christians to participate? Is there any religious undertone in this etiquette? Or even if the missionary thinks it is sinful, Christians can still judge based on their conscience? Because this has been the custom of the Chinese people for thousands of years, once they try to completely reject it, they will inevitably encounter great resistance in missionary work. Most people will regard Christianity as destroying China's familialism and national concepts. Matteo Ricci once adopted a compromise approach to this issue, thinking that Christians thought it was just a courtesy to express respect and filial piety, so they might as well let him follow it. This was a last resort method of obeying authority. However, there were already Jesuits who opposed it at that time, such as Long Huamin and others, who once banned worshiping ancestors and worshiping Confucius, thinking that this was no different from idol worship in Buddhism and Taoism, and was very contrary to Catholic teachings.
Third, regarding some fragmentary issues, such as: people ask whether Christians should lose money and participate in activities such as meeting to welcome God? Or for a Christian whose ancestors were non-Christians, should Christian rituals apply? Or can priests baptize women without those rituals that are considered inappropriate in Chinese customs? These minor issues are related to the above-mentioned issues and are ancillary, not primary. Therefore, the first and second points have become the central issues in this debate. As the external oppression of the church decreased in the seventeenth century, internal disputes arose. As a result, the different opinions between the two factions turned into jealousy between the factions, which also affected the international aspect. Not only the missionaries in the Far East participated in the two fronts, but also the European churches had fierce debates.
Most of the Jesuits in China supported Matteo Ricci's ideas, while most of the Dominicans and Franciscans were in opposition. In 1631, the Dominicans went to Fujian to preach. When he saw that the Jesuits allowed the worship of ancestors and Confucius, he was very disapproving. They united with the Franciscans and reported this issue to the Archbishop of Manila (the capital of the Philippines). The Archbishop then sent the report to Pope Francis VIII in Rome. This happened in 1635. . On the one hand, the Pope sent agents to investigate, and on the other hand, the Jesuits complained to the Pope. In 1638, the archbishop withdrew his complaint.
A Dominican named Morales came to China in 1633 and was forced to leave China in 1637. He was opposed to the Jesuits from the beginning. After arriving in Europe, in 1643, he told the Missionary Society about the situation and raised seventeen questions to attack the Jesuits. There are several important ones, such as:
Can missionaries cancel the anointing ceremony when baptizing women?
Can the Chinese be allowed to pay 30% interest and live on moneylending to become Christians? After becoming a Christian, can I still continue this profession?
Can Christians donate money to superstitious events such as games to welcome gods? When the country holds sacrifices, can Christians participate in such ceremonies? Can Christians attend consecration ceremonies or other funerals? Can Christians call Confucius God? Can an inscription or plaque like "Long Live" be placed in the chapel?
After the results of the discussion by the Missionary Council and the approval of Pope Innocent VII, a prohibition was issued on September 12, 1645. In this order it is stated that this prohibition must be observed temporarily until another decision is made. The Jesuits in China were naturally very surprised by this resolution and decided to state their opinions in this regard to the authorities. So in 1651, a representative, Father Wei Kuangguo (Martini), was sent to Rome to explain. They believed that the Malays did not have a correct understanding of their system. In 1654, Weishi arrived in Rome and sent the Jesuits' statement to the Inquisition. After considerable consideration, Pope Alexander VII ruled that the Jesuits should act in accordance with their opinions and let Christ Disciples themselves decide on matters within this scope. Regardless of superstitious etiquette, funerals, etc., as long as it does not harm their fundamental beliefs, they are free to participate. This is an order issued in 1656. On the surface, it seems to conflict with the order issued in 1645. In fact, it is of a temporary nature and there is no absolute certainty. The Dominicans were not very satisfied with the first order, and Marales once raised questions. At this time, Ma had passed away, and Palanco, who succeeded Ma in the same congregation, asked the Holy See: Should the decree of 1645 be revoked? In 1669, Pope Clement IX responded to him with a public document stating that both decrees should be observed in accordance with the circumstances. This seemed to give the Jesuits a bit of a victory.
When the second Christian crisis occurred, priests from all provinces were imprisoned in Guangzhou, including members of the Jesuits, Dominicans, and Franciscans. Among them, the Jesuits had the largest number. This is A great opportunity for collaboration. They spent forty days fully discussing all aspects of the church's issues. They jointly decided on forty-two issues, among which one was "the law of 1656 must be observed." When a decision is made, all the priests who discuss it sign their signatures one by one and abide by it. The famous Dominican Navarrette could not agree, so he fled to Macau and returned to Europe by ship. He published some works in Europe and greatly attacked the Jesuits. Therefore, the Jesuits at that time not only attacked him in the Catholic Church, but also in the European Protestant churches.
However, the situation in China was different. Most of the Franciscans and Augustinians supported the Jesuits. Even the Dominicans, who were in opposition, also defended Matteo Ricci's situation at that time. Only the Fujian bishop named Maigrot was very dissatisfied with the Jesuit system. There were also some French members of the Jesuits who sympathized with the Manchurians. The Manchurian bishop once issued an order prohibiting the application of the Jesuit system. He was not allowed to call God heaven or God, nor was he allowed to hang a plaque with the word "blue sky" in the chapel. He thought that the papal decree of 1656 was in There is no duty of conscience to abide by, and the accusations made by Wei Kuangguo are groundless, so the believers are absolutely not allowed to freely worship Confucius and their ancestors. Because if these heresies are not removed from the chapel, the believers will not be able to concentrate on worshiping God, and missionaries will not be able to combine the teachings of Christ with the teachings in ancient Chinese books. It should be noted that the God called by Christianity is A master who created heaven and earth. In order to implement this order, he used decisive measures to expel two Jesuits, which aroused the reaction of the Jesuit congregation and caused great conflicts. He therefore sent two priests, named Guemener and Charmot, to Europe to ask Pope Innocent XII to re-examine the issue. In 1697, the Pope handed over the original case to the "Inquisition" for study. This issue became a debate of great interest in religious circles, and many books on the debate were published. There was a Protestant philosopher named Leibniz who also wrote a defense of the Jesuits. It was not until 1700 that a professor of theology at the University of Paris issued a declaration disapproving of the Jesuit ideas and criticizing the Jesuit books, which diverted the attention of the general public.
Since this issue has become a hot topic in Europe, the Holy See organized a committee to study it. In this committee, no Jesuit Dominicans participated, in order to achieve a fair solution. At this time, the Jesuits in China asked Emperor Kangxi the question of "whether worshiping ancestors and worshiping Confucius has a religious nature." Emperor Kangxi made a formal declaration on November 30, 1700, saying that China Worshiping ancestors and worshiping Confucius is nothing more than a respectful etiquette to commemorate his past good deeds and has no religious nature. However, those who opposed the Jesuits had an excuse to say that it was inappropriate to ask the emperor for decisions regarding the church instead of asking the Holy See for resolution. This was enough to arouse the pope's distaste for the Jesuits. In 1704, the "Inquisition" printed an official document, which was approved by Pope Clement XI and published on November 20. Its provisions include: It is forbidden to use "heaven or God" ’ Called God.
It is prohibited to hang plaques with the word "Blue Sky" in churches. Christians are prohibited from worshiping Confucius and their ancestors.
It is forbidden to have words such as soul on the tablet. Because the Holy See wanted to implement this official document and feared any adverse effects, it decided to send a special representative to mediate the disputes in the East. Because a similar incident occurred in Malabar, India at that time, this representative must be agile and capable, not only to satisfy the priests and local believers, but also to hope that China would understand the Pope's decree. It was difficult to find candidates for such an important mission, and in the end it was decided to send Bishop Charles Maillard de Tournon to China with this decree. He first arrived in India, where he prepared to resolve the dispute in Malabar. However, the Portuguese bishop and the Jesuits opposed him, but to no avail. He arrived in Guangzhou in April 1705 and in Beijing on December 4. The Portuguese in the Jesuits had fundamental doubts about his appointment, because those missionaries had spent their whole lives working in China and built many houses, and now they were being appointed by a young man who did not understand the situation in China. Domination, of course, does not mean complete obedience. Emperor Kangxi treated him with courtesy at first. Later, this young representative stood in opposition to the emperor's views and could not be accommodating to Kangxi's previous edicts. Kangxi was greatly displeased and issued an order to expel guests. , ordered him to leave the capital as soon as possible. Doro had no choice but to leave Beijing and arrive in Nanjing. Therefore, Emperor Kangxi issued an edict in December 1706 stating that missionaries were not allowed to preach in China unless they received a seal from the imperial court approving the mission and were allowed to obey Chinese etiquette.
Bishop Dorothy heard this order. Thinking of his mission, he announced the pope's order in Nanjing, and added his own explanation, condemning those who used the titles of God and heaven with those tablets. Indicates cloudy weather. It also said that anyone who violated this prohibition must be expelled from the church; this was obviously against Emperor Kangxi. Therefore, some French priests were expelled from the country because they disobeyed Emperor Kangxi's orders. Only the majority of Augustine and the Jesuits accepted the emperor's words, but they hoped to ask the pope to revise Doro's declaration in the future. Because of Doro's resistance, Emperor Kangxi sent him to Macau for custody. At the same time, at the suggestion of the Jesuits, he sent two priests to Rome to appeal, hoping to do something about Doro's declaration in Nanjing and the decree of 1704. change. Since Doro was imprisoned in Macau, the bishop of Macao also resisted him, but Doro still used him