Review materials of the first volume of the second day of junior high school
Chapter XIV Reproduction and Development of Organisms
I. Biological asexual reproduction
1, asexual reproduction-a reproductive mode in which new individuals are directly produced by the mother without the combination of bisexual reproductive cells.
2. Common asexual propagation methods: bud grafting propagation and vegetative propagation.
(1) Bud reproduction-a reproductive mode in which the mother gives birth to buds in a certain part, and a reproductive mode in which the mother directly produces new individuals. Common budding reproductive organisms; Yeast and hydra.
(2) vegetative reproduction-a reproductive mode in which vegetative organs (roots, stems and leaves) of plants produce new individuals.
Common vegetative propagation methods: grafting, cutting and layering.
Advantages of vegetative propagation: maintaining the excellent characters of plant parents and speeding up propagation.
3. Application of asexual reproduction
(1) Grafting-Grafting the buds or branches of one plant to another plant to make it a more complete plant. Grafting is divided into bud grafting and branch grafting.
A grafted bud or branch is called a scion. Keep the root system, and the grafted plant is called rootstock. Bud grafting is to use buds as scions, and branch grafting is to use branches as scions.
Improve the survival rate of grafted plants: make the cambium of scion and rootstock closely combined. The survival after grafting depends on the healing between scion and rootstock and the relationship between them. The closer the genetic relationship, the greater the survival rate.
Advantages of grafting: through grafting, the quality of plants can be improved and the excellent characters of parents can be retained.
(2) Plant tissue culture: Under aseptic conditions, plant organs, tissues or cells are cultured in a culture medium containing a variety of nutrients and plant hormones to make them develop into complete plants.
Advantages of tissue culture: high proliferation rate and high survival rate. It can be produced all year round and can prevent virus invasion.
Second, sexual reproduction of plants.
1, sexual reproduction-refers to the reproductive mode that fertilized eggs are produced by the combination of bisexual germ cells, and the fertilized eggs develop into new individuals.
(1) Reproductive process:
Pollination-the process of transferring pollen from stamen anther to pistil stigma in different ways. Pollination is divided into self-pollination and cross-pollination
Fertilization-the process of combining plant sperm with egg cells to form fertilized eggs.
(2) the process of fertilization: (see figure P9, figure 14-7)
(3) Sexual reproduction significance: offspring have the heredity of parents and have greater vitality and variability.
Ovary ovary wall pericarp fruit
Ovule integument seed
Zygotic embryo
Fertilized polar endosperm
2. Formation of fruits and seeds: (see figure P 10, figure 14-8)
Third, the reproduction and development of insects.
1, the reproduction and development of silkworm.
(1) Silkworms produce offspring through sexual reproduction, which are hermaphroditic and fertilized in vivo. It's a complete pervert.
(2) The development process of silkworm: fertilized egg → larva → pupa → adult.
(3) Complete metamorphosis-the development process goes through four stages: fertilized egg, larva, pupa and adult, and the development process in which there are obvious differences in morphological structure and living habits between larva and adult is called complete metamorphosis.
(4) Other completely abnormal insects: bees, flies, mosquitoes, ants and other insects.
2. The reproduction and development of grasshoppers.
(1) The development process of locust: egg → larva → adult, which belongs to incomplete metamorphosis.
(2) Incomplete metamorphosis-the development process goes through three stages: egg, larva and adult. The development process of larvae and adults is called incomplete metamorphosis, which is very similar in morphological structure and almost the same in living habits.
(3) Other insects with incomplete abnormal development: crickets, crickets, mantises, etc.
3. The best time to kill pests: larval stage, when pests eat a lot, move slowly, have a small range of activities, have poor resistance and are easy to be killed.
Four. Reproduction and development of amphibians
1, Frog: vertebrate, hermaphrodite, in vitro fertilization, spawning, fertilization process can not be separated from water.
Tadpole adult frog
Respiratory organs, gills, skin, lungs
With or without tail
The living environment is shallow and humid.
on land
(1) The reproductive process of frogs: courtship → hug → female frog ovulates, male frog ejaculates → fertilized egg.
(2) Frog development process: fertilized egg → tadpole → young frog → adult frog, which belongs to metamorphosis development process.
(3) Compare the difference between tadpoles and adult frogs (right)
2. The main characteristics of amphibians-metamorphosis, larvae live in water and breathe through gills; Most adults live on land, a few adults live in water, and generally breathe with their lungs; The skin has the function of assisting breathing; The heart has two atria and one ventricle; The temperature is unstable.
(1) metamorphosis: the development process in which there are significant differences in morphological structure and living habits between larvae and adults is called metamorphosis.
(2) Reproductive development and environment of amphibians: The fertilization of amphibians is carried out in water, and the larvae live in water, so the process of reproductive development cannot be separated from water, so their living range is limited to some extent. It is necessary to protect the water environment on which they live.
(3) Other amphibians: toad, salamander and giant salamander.
Verb (abbreviation for verb) The reproduction and development of birds.
1, the reproductive and developmental process of birds
(1) generally includes courtship, mating, nesting, spawning, hatching and brooding.
(2) dioecious, in vivo fertilization, oviparous
(3) The fertilized egg begins to develop in the female bird, and after laying eggs, the embryo stops developing due to the decrease of external temperature.
(4) Structure of the egg: ① Eggshell: There are pores on it, which can exchange gas and protect the internal structure; 2 eggshell membrane: protect eggs and yolk. ③ Egg white: It is rich in nutrients and water needed for embryo development. ④ Egg yolk: the main nutritional part of an egg cell, which provides nutrition for embryo development. ⑤ blastoderm: The blastoderm of a fertilized egg can develop into a chicken in the future. ⑥ yolk membrane: protecting yolk. ⑦ Air chamber: provides oxygen for embryo development. 8 egg belt: fix the yolk.
2. Early bird and late bird:
(1) Early birds: chicken, duck, goose, wild goose.
(2) Late adult birds: domestic pigeons, swallows and sparrows.
Chapter 15 Inheritance and Variation of Organisms
First of all, DNA is the main genetic material.
1, heredity-the phenomenon that a parent organism reproduces its similar offspring. Heredity is a common phenomenon in biology.
2. The nucleus is the center of genetic information (see figure P29, figure 15-2).
(1) chromosome exists in the nucleus and consists of DNA and protein, and the gene is located in DNA.
(2) In cells of organisms, chromosomes exist in pairs, and genes also exist in pairs, and genes are located on paired chromosomes. For example, 23 pairs of chromosomes in human somatic cells contain 46 DNA molecules and tens of thousands of pairs of genes, which determines the heritable traits of human body.
3. In the somatic cells of each organism, the number of chromosomes is fixed, and they usually appear in pairs. A constant number of chromosomes is very important for the normal activities of organisms. Changes in the number of chromosomes can cause variation.
4. Chromosomes are mainly composed of protein and DNA. DNA is the main genetic material. DNA molecules form a double helix structure. Genes are DNA molecular fragments with specific genetic effects.
Second, human characteristics and inheritance.
1, personality-the sum of all characteristics of an organism, including morphological and structural characteristics, physiological characteristics, behavior patterns, etc.
(1) Genetic traits-morphological characteristics (appearance) and physiological characteristics (blood type) that can be inherited.
(2) Relative traits-different manifestations of the same trait of an organism (black and white rabbit hair, human double eyelids, single eyelids, etc.). )
2. Gene control traits
(1) gene-a small unit in genetic material that determines biological characteristics, is a DNA fragment with genetic effect.
(2) Genotype-refers to the genetic composition related to the traits studied by the organism. (e.g. dd, Dd, DD)
(3) Phenotype-an individual trait that can be observed is the expression type of a specific genotype under certain environmental conditions.
(4) Judgment of dominant and recessive traits:
(5) Dominant genes-genes that control dominant traits; Recessive gene-a gene that controls recessive traits
(6) Gene expression: ① A pair of dominant genes (DD)-phenotypic dominance.
② A pair of recessive genes (DD)-the phenotype is recessive.
③ A dominant gene and a recessive gene (DD)-the phenotype is dominant.
(7) Individuals with the same phenotype may not have the same genotype; Individuals with the same genotype must have the same phenotype.
(8) hybridization-two individuals with different genetics (or genotypes) mate.
Third, human gender inheritance.
1, sex chromosome-chromosome related to sex determination
(1) Male: 22 pairs of autosomes +XY chromosomes (one pair of sex chromosomes).
There are two kinds of sperm: 22 autosomes +X chromosomes and 22 autosomes +Y chromosomes.
(2) Female: 22 pairs of autosomes +XX chromosomes (one pair of sex chromosomes).
There is one kind of egg formed: 22 autosomes +X chromosomes.
2. Equal opportunities for boys and girls (see figure P37, figure 15- 10)
Fourth, genetic diseases and eugenics.
1. Hereditary diseases-diseases caused by changes in genetic material or controlled by pathogenic genes. Can be passed on to future generations.
2. Common genetic diseases: color blindness, congenital mental retardation, hemophilia, congenital deafness, albinism, etc.
3. Inbreeding offspring are prone to genetic diseases: genes come from the same ancestor, and it is more likely that both husband and wife carry the same disease-causing genes.
Transfer of (1) gene through sperm or egg cells
Men: father (23 pairs of chromosomes) and mother (23 pairs of chromosomes)
Sperm (23 chromosomes) Egg (23 chromosomes)
A fertilized egg (23 pairs of chromosomes)
The genetic information carried by chromosomes is transmitted to children through germ cells. If the pathogenic gene originally carried by both parents is recessive, the genotype is a dominant gene and a recessive gene, and both parents do not express it. If two recessive genes are combined in a fertilized egg, the offspring will suffer from genetic diseases.
(2) Descendants who are related by blood get married and have children, and their descendants have genetic diseases.
For example, Aa × Aa
(normal) (normal)
Ah ah ah ah
Descendants: AA Aa Aa aa
(normal) (normal) (normal) (sick)
The marriage law of our country stipulates that it is forbidden to marry close relatives such as lineal blood relatives and collateral blood relatives within three generations.
5. Measures for prenatal and postnatal care: prohibit consanguineous marriage, and advocate genetic counseling and prenatal diagnosis.
Biological variation of verb (abbreviation of verb)
1, variation-different traits between parents and children. Variation (sexual reproduction) is a common phenomenon in biology.
(1) Genetic variation: the variation of traits caused by the change of genetic material (which can be passed on to future generations).
(2) Non-genetic variation: character variation caused by changes in environmental conditions (which cannot be passed on to future generations)
2. Three sources of genetic variation:
(1) Gene recombination: The offspring produced by hybridization may have new genotypes due to gene recombination and can be passed on to the offspring.
(2) Chromosome variation: variation of chromosome number; Variation of chromosome structure;
(3) Gene mutation: the change of gene structure. Mutations in germ cells can be passed on to future generations.
3. Humans apply the principle of genetic variation to cultivate new varieties.
(1) Artificial breeding: such as breeding high-yield cows. (2) Hybridization: such as cultivating high-yield lodging-resistant wheat. (3) Inducing gene mutation: for example, cultivating space pepper. (4) Inducing chromosome variation, such as cultivating seedless watermelon.
Chapter 16 Diversity of Animal Movement Modes
1. Diversity of animal movement modes: flying, swimming, crawling, walking, jumping, running, gliding, etc.
2. Importance of animal exercise: (1) Animals adapt to the environment through exercise, which improves their ability to adapt to the environment. (2) Animals can quickly move to more suitable habitats and breeding sites through exercise, which is beneficial to their own survival and reproduction.
3. Animal sports organs: Multicellular animals rely on unique sports organs for sports. Single-celled animals also have movement structures.
(1) fin; Insects-wings; Reptiles-limbs; Paramecium-cilia; Amoeba-pseudopodia
(2) When ants are moving, they usually move alternately with one front leg, one rear leg and the other middle leg.
4. Motion system of vertebrates: skeleton, osseointegration and skeletal muscle.
The bones of humans and vertebrates are interconnected to form bones. Skeleton is the basis of animal figure, providing attachment points for muscles.
Bone connection is a connecting structure between bones. Muscle is the main component of the exercise system.
5. Exercise: Under the control of nerves, muscles contract or relax, pulling the attached bones, and moving the bone connection as the hub to produce movement.
6. Elbow flexion: the biceps brachii contracts and the triceps brachii relaxes.
Elbow extension: the biceps brachii relaxes and the triceps brachii contracts.
7. The contraction and relaxation of people and muscles are all completed under the regulation of the nervous system.
8. Source of exercise energy: food → digestion → absorption → cells → breathing → heat energy +ATP.
When ATP is released, the energy is converted into kinetic energy (movement), light energy (firefly glow) and electric energy (electric fish discharge).
Chapter 17 Animal Behavior
1. The main types of animal behavior: foraging behavior, defensive behavior, reproductive behavior and group behavior.
Foraging behavior-the behavior of obtaining the food needed for survival in a unique way.
Defensive behavior-it is very important to maintain the survival of individuals and the reproduction of populations.
Reproductive behavior-increasing the number of offspring is conducive to population reproduction.
Migration behavior-changing habitats with seasonal changes.
Group behavior-the behavior of all kinds of connections between individuals of the same species except reproduction.
Animal behavior is an adaptive performance to complex and changeable environment. Animals with group behavior have a clear division of labor among group members.
2. Innate behavior-the behavior that animals are born with and controlled by genetic material.
Acquired behavior-an unnatural new behavior gradually established by accumulating life experience and "learning" during the growth of animals. Animals can greatly improve their ability to adapt to the environment through acquired learning. The more developed the cerebral cortex, the stronger the learning ability)
3. Animal behavior is the response of animals to external stimuli.
4. Animal behavior is mainly controlled by nervous system and endocrine system.
5. Animal behavior is also related to hormones secreted by endocrine system.
6. The taller an animal is, the stronger its ability to solve problems and adapt to various living environments.
Chapter 18 Diseases and Immunity
1, infectious diseases-diseases caused by pathogens (germs, viruses, parasites) that can spread between people or between people and animals.
2. Characteristics of infectious diseases: (1) infectivity, (2) epidemic, endemic and seasonal, (3) pathogenicity and (4) immunity.
3. The basic links of the epidemic of infectious diseases: the source of infection, the route of transmission and the susceptible population.
Source of infection-a person or animal that can spread pathogens.
Transmission route-the way for pathogens to leave the source of infection and reach healthy people. (Mainly: air transmission, water transmission, biological media transmission, etc. )
Susceptible population-people who lack immunity to infectious diseases and are susceptible to diseases. People who have never had measles are prone to measles.
4, common infectious diseases:
According to different transmission channels, it can be divided into respiratory infectious diseases, digestive infectious diseases, blood infectious diseases and body surface infectious diseases.
According to pathogenic pathogens, it can be divided into bacterial infectious diseases, viral infectious diseases and parasitic infectious diseases.
5. There are three main transmission routes of AIDS: sexual transmission, blood transmission and mother-to-child transmission.
6. Important measures to prevent the epidemic of infectious diseases: control the source of infection, cut off the route of transmission and protect susceptible people.
7. Infectious diseases are contagious before the onset. At the beginning of the disease, it is the most contagious. According to different infectious diseases, different measures should be taken to cut off the transmission route. Find, report, isolate and treat patients with infectious diseases as early as possible.
8. Cardiovascular diseases-diseases caused by heart and vascular diseases.
9. The function of coronary artery: to transport oxygen and nutrients to myocardial cells, and to transport metabolic wastes at the same time.
10, coronary heart disease-myocardial ischemia caused by coronary artery disease. The main symptoms are angina pectoris and myocardial infarction.
1 1. angina pectoris: temporary myocardial ischemia, chest tightness and precordial pain.
12, myocardial infarction: coronary artery blocked by coagulation, blood can not circulate, myocardial infarction.
13, the main causes of coronary heart disease: high-fat diet, lack of exercise, smoking, etc.
14, cancer-malignant tumor of human epithelial cells. (The genetic material in the cell changes)
15, in cities, the first malignant tumor is lung cancer; In rural areas, the first malignant tumor is gastric cancer; Leukemia is the first malignant tumor in adolescents and children.
16. Carcinogens: physical carcinogens, chemical carcinogens and viral carcinogens.
17, the main methods of cancer treatment: surgery (surgical resection of tumor), chemotherapy (use of anticancer drugs), radiotherapy (radiation).
18, three lines of defense of human body: (1) skin and mucosa and their secretions (2) bactericidal substances (lysozyme) and phagocytes (macrophages and white blood cells, etc. ) in body fluids (3) immune organs (spleen, tonsils and lymph nodes, etc. ) and immune cells (lymphocytes).
19, antigen-a substance that can stimulate human immune system to produce antibodies and bind to corresponding antibodies. (Virus, Allotypic Red Blood Cells, Allogeneic Tissue)
20, antibody-when the pathogen enters the human body, stimulate lymphocytes, lymphocytes produce special protein for pathogens.
2 1, immunity-a physiological function of human body, which destroys and repels antigen substances entering human body and maintains the stability of internal environment. 22. Classification of immunity: specific immunity and nonspecific immunity.
(1) specific immunity-an immunity obtained after birth against pathogens.
(2) Nonspecific immunity-people are born with it, not only for a specific pathogen, but also for many pathogens.
immunization
nonspecific immunity
Phagocyte, lysozyme and active and passive immunity of human body.
Natural man-made
Immunization, vaccines and toxoids obtained after suffering from infectious diseases or recessive infections, are transmitted to infants through placenta and lactation for injection of antitoxin and antibacterial serum.
23. Planned immunization-planned vaccination.
24, four kinds of vaccine immunization-BCG (tuberculosis), polio vaccine (polio/polio), DTP vaccine (pertussis, diphtheria, tetanus) and measles vaccine (measles).
April 25th, National Children's Vaccination Day
Chapter 19 Cherish life
1, drugs-opium, morphine, heroin, ice, marijuana, cocaine (the first three are extracted from poppy)
2. Safe medication: distinguish between prescription drugs (R) and over-the-counter drugs (OTC). Only under the guidance of a doctor can you take over-the-counter drugs for a long time.
3. Artificial respiration: ① Place the rescued person in a place with fresh air and suitable temperature; ② Make the rescued person's respiratory tract unobstructed; Untie the collar, let the patient lie on his back and tilt his head backwards; ③ Hold the nostril of the rescued person by hand and blow. 15 ~ 20 times per minute ④ Observe the reaction.
4, cardiopulmonary resuscitation: ① Let the patient lie on his back, head back, belt relaxed ② Prepare according to the specific steps of artificial respiration. ③ Squeeze the heart ④ Squeeze the heart 4 ~ 5 times every artificial respiration, and do ⑤ observation and reaction repeatedly.
5. New concept of health: physical health, mental health, good social adaptability and moral health.
6. Factors affecting health: ① biological genetic factors ② environmental factors (natural environment, psychological environment, social environment).
③ Lifestyle and behavior factors ④ Medical and health service factors.
7. Causes of addiction: (Short answer) The human brain can secrete morphine-like peptides and other substances to regulate normal physiological activities of the human body. After the drug enters the human body, exogenous morphine peptide inhibits the normal secretion of human morphine-like peptide, which eventually leads to the cessation of human morphine-like peptide secretion. Once the drug supply stops, the normal physiological activities of the human body will be chaotic, and morphine peptide must be supplemented in time to alleviate it. Therefore, drug abuse is addictive.
Some medical drugs, such as Demerol, will also have addiction symptoms if abused, for the same reason as drug addiction.
8. Harm of alcoholism to health: (Discussion) Alcohol harms many organs of human body, and alcohol causes gene mutation.
9. Hazards of smoking: (Discuss) Hazards to smokers' health, victims of passive smoking, gene mutation, fire and waste.
10, Harm of Drugs: (Discussion) It is extremely destructive to human body and causes serious social problems.
1 1. Analysis and discussion: Wu Mou of a certain community clearly knew that there were several drug addicts in the building where he lived, but turned a blind eye. He said, "It's none of my business. What do I care? " But after a while, he painfully found that his son in middle school had become a prisoner of drugs. Moreover, the son's body has gradually changed from "as strong as an ox" to "as thin as a bone". (Excerpted from Xinhuanet)
(1) Is it really none of our business for others to take drugs? Why?
(2) What would you do if you found someone taking drugs or dealing drugs?
(3) What should I pay attention to when making friends and choosing an activity place? Why are teenagers easy targets for drug addicts and drug dealers?
(4) In just two years, why did my son's body change from "strong as an ox" to "skinny"?
(5) How should drugs be treated?