China invented pottery about 1 10,000 years ago, which is one of the earliest areas in the world. Although we can't understand the invention of pottery in detail at present, the invention of pottery is by no means accidental, it is the inevitable product of the development of human material civilization to a certain stage. Pottery has soft texture and obvious water absorption. Its types include household appliances, production tools, funerary objects, arts and crafts and building materials.

Famous painted pottery and black pottery

After entering the Neolithic Age, human beings began to settle down and manage agriculture. The appearance of pottery is closely related to it, so there is a legend in ancient China that "God cultivates pottery". In the Neolithic Age, it was almost ubiquitous and played an important role in people's production and life, such as pottery knives for harvesting, pottery balls for hunting, pottery spinning wheels for twisting yarn, pottery files for tanning, etc. In life, pottery is indispensable from cooking, eating, pumping water to storage. At the same time, there are musical instruments such as pottery whistle, pottery cymbals, pottery drums and pottery balls, as well as statues of goddess and animals that reflect the original religious content. In addition, pottery is also widely used as funerary utensils for funerary objects.

The development of pottery has gone through the process from practical purpose to the combination of practicality and aesthetics, and countless pottery handicrafts have been created, which makes pottery indisputably enjoy the title of pioneer of plastic arts. The Neolithic painted pottery art in China is a wonderful work in the ancient cultural and artistic treasure house of the world boat-shaped painted pottery pot. Because of the different firing process, pottery will produce different colors. For example, the figure dance pattern pots unearthed in Datong, Qinghai, the humanoid colored bottles unearthed in Qin 'an, Gansu, and the pottery pots unearthed in Linru, Henan are rare prehistoric art treasures.

In addition, there are a large number of practical craft vessels that imitate animal shapes, such as boat-shaped pots, eagle ding and gourd bottles in Yangshao culture, pig-shaped pots and dog-shaped pots in Dawenkou culture, headgear in Majiayao culture, statue of goddess in Hongshan Culture and waterfowl pots in Liangzhu culture. Thousands of pottery sculptures were found in the Dengjiawan site in Tianmen City, Hubei Province. There are many kinds of caves, and the pieces are simple and vivid, which is amazing.

About 4,500 years ago, due to the adoption of wheel system technology and sealed pottery kiln technology, the color of pottery changed from red to gray-black, the quality was greatly improved, and a number of unprecedented black pottery products appeared. For example, the silkworm shell cup of Longshan culture in Shandong Province is dark and shiny, and the ceramic shell is only 0.3 mm ~ 0.5 mm thick. The surface and handle are also engraved with fine patterns and carved holes of different shapes. Its technology reached the peak of ancient pottery making.

In the Neolithic Age, another branch of pottery appeared, namely architectural pottery. For example, in Liangzhu culture, building bricks with irregular shapes at low temperature were found, with black fetal heart and red skin, which represented a great invention in the history of human architecture. Later, clay pipe made of grey pottery was found in Pingliangtai ancient city of Huaiyang, Longshan culture in Central Plains.

② Precious carved white pottery

Xia, Shang and Zhou dynasties have entered the bronze age, but pottery is still a necessity in people's daily life. Primitive porcelain and hard pottery fired from kaolin at 1200℃ represent the technological level of this period. Its water absorption is not obvious, and its performance is close to that of later porcelain. Especially in the late Shang Dynasty, the carved white pottery was also made of kaolin, with a hard texture and the same pattern as the bronze ware. Exquisite patterns, beautiful shapes, bright and delicate colors. Carved white pottery belongs to ritual vessels, and there are few reeds, ding, Zun and Zan. Most of them were concentrated in Xiaotun, Anyang, the capital of Shang Dynasty at that time.

During this period, the three-way clay pipe appeared in architectural pottery. Pottery tiles and circular tiles appeared in the Western Zhou Dynasty, which marked an important turning point in the form of human architecture.

(3) Towards a specialized ceramic industry.

During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, with the expansion of city scale and the development of industry and commerce, pottery production became more concentrated and specialized. During this period, gray pottery was widely used in northern China, not only as daily necessities, but also for tombs. In Jiangnan, printed hard pottery, gray pottery and primitive porcelain are very popular. Due to the vast territory of China and the different natural environments in different regions, people's living customs and cultural traditions are also very different, which is manifested in the types and decorations of pottery. By the end of the Warring States period, with the further strengthening of economic and cultural exchanges, some common factors began to appear in pottery.

In the Spring and Autumn Period, ceramic square and rectangular thin bricks appeared gradually. At this point, the basic categories of building ceramics have been basically established and developed rapidly. During the Warring States period, semi-circular tiles were popular in many countries, with vivid patterns printed on them and strong regional colors, such as the gluttonous patterns in the capital, the double animal patterns on the unicorn tree and the moire patterns in Xianyang, Qin. Since then, this tradition has been handed down from generation to generation and has become a major feature of ancient architecture in China.

2. Advanced bronzes

Copper is the earliest metal known and used by human beings. At first, people used natural copper blocks to make tools and decorations. Later, it was found that adding a certain proportion of tin or lead in copper smelting can greatly reduce its melting point and enhance its hardness, thus producing bronze. Bronze has low melting point and good melt fluidity, which is convenient for making containers. Ancient Chinese bronzes enjoy a high reputation in the world for their huge production scale, exquisite modeling and exquisite craftsmanship.

(1) The heyday of bronze culture

About 4000 years ago, China entered the Bronze Age. Historical legends say that Xia Yuzhu Jiuding symbolizes Kyushu, and later Jiuding was regarded as a national treasure by Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties.

Bronzes in their heyday can be divided into three periods: early, middle and late. The early stage is represented by the cultural relics unearthed in the late Erlitou site in Yanshi, Henan Province, which has a certain casting level. In addition to knives, cones, bells and other small bronzes, there are weapons such as Ge and Qi, and bronzes such as Jue, Jiao and Yun. But at this time, the tires of bronzes are very thin, and the tables are mostly plain and unwritten.

The bronzes in the middle of Shang Dynasty are represented by those unearthed from Zhengzhou Shang Dynasty site and Huangpi Panlongcheng site, dating back to Pan Geng and then moved to Yin. There are many bronzes unearthed, including Ding, Wei, Gui, Jue and Zuo. However, the fetal quality is generally thin, with only one line of stripes. However, the Ling Du square roof found in Zhengzhou, which is as high as 1 m, needs a fairly high manufacturing level.

The late period is represented by bronzes unearthed from Yin Ruins in Anyang. The middle period of this stage is the most distinctive, represented by bronzes unearthed from the female tomb in Anyang, Henan Province. There are many kinds of new objects, and their shapes are more abundant. Ritual vessels are generally thick and have complex patterns, and inscriptions begin to appear. Among them, the most representative is Simuwu Dafang Ding. The king of Shang Dynasty was cast to worship Wu Mu. 1939 Unearthed in Yinxu, Wuguan Village, Anyang, Henan Province. It weighs 875 kilograms and has a huge and far-reaching shape. The belly of the tripod has animal face patterns and Kubinashi's body, which is ferocious and terrible. The words "Simuwu" are cast on the abdominal wall, and cicada patterns are engraved on the feet, with simple lines. Simuwu Fang Ding embodies the production capacity and technical level of bronze smelting and casting industry in Yin and Shang Dynasties, and is a symbol of the highly developed bronze culture in Shang Dynasty.

(2) Western Zhou bronzes with inscriptions

Gao Feng, the capital of the Western Zhou Dynasty. With the shift of the political center, the center of gravity of the bronze industry also moved westward. The bronze handicraft industry in this period inherited the tradition of Shang Dynasty and belonged to the heyday of the Bronze Age. The scale and quantity of bronzes have increased. After the mid-Western Zhou Dynasty, the national strength gradually declined, and the shape and combination of bronzes also changed. Obviously, the number of wine vessels in bronze ritual vessels decreased, and ding and chime began to appear, resulting in Lu, Ying, Zhuan and Jian.

At this time, relatively simple band patterns are popular on the surface of bronzes, and the most common ones are stolen patterns, heavy ring patterns and tile ridge patterns, which are simple and comfortable. Due to the invention of welding, the production efficiency has been greatly improved. The fine bronzes of the Western Zhou Dynasty include the bronze tripod unearthed in Chunhua, Shaanxi Province, which is 122 cm high and is the largest bronze ware of the Western Zhou Dynasty ever seen.

The precious value of bronzes in the Western Zhou Dynasty is prominently embodied in inscriptions. Long inscriptions began to appear in the early Western Zhou Dynasty, such as Xiao Mengding's inscription of 390 words and Mao's inscription of 494 words in the late Western Zhou Dynasty. Other important inscriptions are Li Chan, He Zun and Pan Shiqiang. These inscriptions record some important historical events at that time and have important historical value. In addition, inscriptions are valuable materials for studying the evolution of ancient Chinese characters and the art of calligraphy in China.

③ The second peak of bronze development.

Bronzes in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period can be divided into three regions: the Central Plains represented by Sanjin, Haidai represented by Qilu, the northern region represented by Yan, the southern region represented by Chu and the western regions represented by Chu. Among them, Qin and Chu have the strongest regional colors. Qin inherited the tradition of the Western Zhou Dynasty and became a family of its own. Influenced by the Central Plains culture, Chu culture has developed rapidly, and with the increasing national strength, it has also formed its own characteristics. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, there was social unrest, and bronzes at this time reflected this social trend. From the mid-Spring and Autumn Period to the mid-Warring States Period, it entered the second peak in the development history of Chinese bronzes.

The changes of bronzes in this period are mainly reflected in the changes of bronze shapes and the emergence of new technologies. With the further development of separate casting method, the car body and accessories are formed separately, the welding method is popularized, and the patterns printed and cast by square die printing method are rising, which leads to the popularity of plane patterns and gorgeous bronze surfaces. For example, the bronze pot unearthed in Chengdu, Sichuan, and the bronze pot unearthed in Changye State Funeral Tomb in Shanxi are outstanding representatives of this kind of technology.

The achievements of copper smelting in this period are also reflected in the casting of bronzes by lost wax investment technology, such as the bronze ban unearthed from Si Xia Chu's tomb in Xichuan, Henan Province, and the bronze drum unearthed from Zeng Houyi's tomb in Sui County, Hubei Province. All of them have used the lost wax method to cast extremely fine and exquisite main plane patterns, which are breathtaking in complexity.

At this time, the musical instruments mainly include chimes, cymbals, cymbals, brass, zinc and so on. Among them, Niu Zhong in Xinyang Chu Tomb and Zeng Houyi Tomb in Sui County have the most complete chimes and the largest scale. Two tones can be produced every minute, and the timbre is pure. Its center position is 12 semitone. The discovery of these bronze musical instruments greatly enriched musicology in the pre-Qin period. Hooks and bronze mirrors are the most representative of the technological level in daily appliances. During the Warring States period, the manufacture of bronze mirrors was the most developed in Chu. The best weapons in wuyue, such as Wu Wang's Fu Tea Sword, Wu Wang's Fu Tea Spear and Yue Wang's Gou Jian Sword, are all excellent in workmanship and extremely sharp.

3. Jade articles

Jade is a handicraft carved from natural jade. China is called "Jade Country" in the world.

(1) Neolithic jade articles

There are exquisite jade articles in many primitive cultural sites in the Neolithic Age, among which Liangzhu culture in Hongshan Culture in western Liaoning and the southeast coast is the most striking.

Yubi Longshan culture is popular in aristocratic tombs of Liangzhu culture, and jade articles are buried with them. There are more than 200 tombs, including jade cong, jade, cymbals, bracelets, crowns and more than 20 kinds of birds, fish and turtles. These jades are well-made and have complex shapes. The carving techniques are mainly intaglio carving, such as bas-relief, semicircle carving, hollowing out and cone carving. In particular, dense images composed of thin and undamaged negative lines have the effect of relief. Yan is the largest jade in Liangzhu culture and the most exquisite jade made and carved. Every jade cong has a human face and an animal face, which embodies the primitive totem worship.

At the same time, a number of yellow-green jade articles have been unearthed in northern Hongshan Culture, including dragon-shaped jade Jue, hook Pei Fang, triple jade, fish, birds, owls and silkworms. Sculpture is rough and simple, with unique flavor, especially Yulong, which attracts the most attention. Jade shovel, jade twist, jade arm ring and jade face have also been unearthed in Dawenkou culture in Haidai area.

In short, in the late Neolithic period, jade initially contained religious and moral concepts, and was closely related to politics, power and rank identity.

② Plane jade carvings in Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties

Jade weapons, knives, cymbals, poles, palms and handles were found many times in Erlitou culture in Xia Dynasty. Obviously, most of them are evolved from weapons and tools, and the technology is quite exquisite.

Jade articles in Shang and Zhou Dynasties are mostly symbolic and decorative, and their shapes, patterns and techniques are obviously superior to those in Xia Dynasty. The representative ones are imitation bronze Hosta, kneeling jade man and hermaphrodite jade man. During the Shang and Zhou Dynasties, there were a large number of animal jade carvings with fine and accurate shapes and vivid images, and were decorated with hidden double hooks. In the late Shang Dynasty, beautiful jade articles appeared, such as the jade turtle unearthed in Xiaotun, Anyang, with purple-brown jade skin as the back armor, white limbs and abdomen, and exquisite conception. Jade articles in the middle and late Western Zhou Dynasty formed another style, with exaggerated shapes and smooth and natural lines.

Generally speaking, most of the jades in Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties are plane carvings such as shallow carvings and reliefs, but among the jades unearthed in Yin Ruins, round carvings account for a certain proportion. Among them, more than 10 jade carvings unearthed from Anfu Tomb in Henan Province are of great value.

③ Exquisite Warring States jade articles

Since the late Spring and Autumn Period, jade articles have undergone obvious changes. The patterns on jade articles are from simple to dense, and the hidden vortex patterns are popular, which makes the objects look round and plump. The representative work in the early Warring States Period was Yu Pei unearthed from the tomb of Zeng Houyi. The total length is 48 cm and the width is 8.3 cm. It consists of 13 hollow jade pieces with various shapes or patterns and 24 rings, semi-rings or square buckles. This jewelry is cut by hidden wire, naturally ups and downs, along the grain, exquisite and charming. This is the longest and most exquisite multi-section activity chain discovered in Yu Pei so far.

The jades in the middle and late Warring States period reflect the high technological level of the jades in the Warring States period. The representative works are Yuhuang unearthed from the tomb of Wei royal family in Huixian village and jade belt hook unearthed from the tomb of Zhongshan king in Pingshan. There are seven exquisite jade pieces and two gold-plated bronze animal heads in the jade yellow unearthed from the tomb of the Wei royal family, which are connected by copper pieces into an arc, with a total length of 20.2 cm, and the jade is warm and moist. The color is white and light gray, and it is exquisite Hetian jade. A piece of jade in the middle is slightly bent like a folding fan. Cut a beast with a vertical tail on the upper side, drill a small hole in the mouth to facilitate binding, and wear a nose on the lower arc for Yu Pei to bind. This central jade and its fan-shaped jade carvings on the left and right sides have deformed plane patterns, forming a dragon body with a jade faucet on the outside. The dragon head has a gold-plated bronze tiger head, the tiger head has an oval jade, and the mouth has a cirrus pattern. The pattern is symmetrical and full, and the carving is exquisite and delicate.

During the Warring States period, jade was of high quality, and governors often used Hetian jade. Jade is delicate, moist and shiny, mostly bluish white with occasional white jade.

4. Primitive porcelain

Porcelain is a great invention of China. As early as BC16th century, porcelain was fired in the early Shang Dynasty. But in the pre-Qin period, porcelain was in the initial and primary stage, so it was called "primitive porcelain".

Primitive porcelain is painted with blue glaze, so it is also called "primitive celadon". Because it has better performance than pottery, it is quickly loved by people and widely used.

Primitive porcelain was found all over the country in Shang and Zhou Dynasties. Common shapes are statue, pot, reed, bean, plate, a, bowl and so on. The raw materials are not refined and the texture is rough. The tire color is mainly gray and grayish white, and a few are blue gray and sauce color, which is not stable enough. Most of the patterns are printed or carved under the glaze of watches, mainly including Yun Leiwen, mesh pattern, check pattern and so on. In Shang and Zhou dynasties, the mud slab construction method was mostly used, and the wheel method was gradually popular in Spring and Autumn Period. Jiangnan area, especially Zhejiang area, is the main producing area of primitive porcelain. At this time, the original dragon kiln is mostly used.

During the Warring States period, primitive porcelain has become one of the most important daily necessities for people, and it has been used more widely. The production scale and output have been greatly developed and improved than before. The quality of porcelain in Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Jiangxi and Shanxi is very good. The raw materials are processed, the texture is delicate, and the tires are mostly gray. The glaze layer is thin and uniform, mostly blue or bluish yellow, and a few are pale yellow. Most of them are decorated with S-shaped patterns. The molding process adopts the method of drawing blank by pottery turning, so the device has regular shape and uniform wall thickness. The shooting center is still in Zhejiang.

5. lacquerware

China has a long history of making lacquerware. The earliest lacquerware was found in Hemudu cultural site in the middle Neolithic period, including a red lacquered wooden bowl, five wooden tire lacquered tubes and several painted pottery pieces, dating back about 7000 years. Lacquer coffins and lacquerware inlaid with jade beads were also found in Liangzhu cultural tombs. The Ten Chapters of Everything Everything is done by Han Feizi records that Yu Shun made a food container and painted it with ink. Yu made a sacrificial vessel, painted with ink on the outside and Zhu on the inside.

During the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties, lacquerware became more common and its technology was greatly improved. Lacquer boxes for mourning were found in Erlitou cultural tombs in Xia Dynasty, and lacquerware such as Zhang, A, drums and boxes were unearthed one after another. At the Hexi site in Gaocheng, Hebei Province, lacquer boxes and plates carved with thin wooden tires decorated with embossed gold foil in the early Shang Dynasty were found. The surfaces of the boxes were decorated with scarlet embossed black lacquer patterns, and some of them were inlaid with turquoise. Exquisite craftsmanship and bright colors reflect the superb craftsmanship at that time.

In the Western Zhou Dynasty, it was popular to embed mussel shells on the surface of lacquerware. For example, a lacquer ware with lace patterns of grinding mussels was unearthed from the tomb of Weiguo nobles in Xincun, Xunxian County, Henan Province. The most representative lacquerware craft in the Western Zhou Dynasty is a batch of wooden lacquerware unearthed from Yan's noble tomb in Beijing. There are many kinds of lacquerware, all painted with colorful lacquer patterns and inlaid with mussels. One of the lacquerware is embossed with decorative lines, with three hoops of gold foil and turquoise.

The outstanding change of lacquerware technology in the Spring and Autumn Period is that a small number of lacquerware have used metal fittings. A piece of lacquerware fragment unearthed from No.1 Tomb in Langjiazhuang, Linzi, Shandong Province, is painted with fine lines such as figures, flowers and birds, and its composition is rigorous and symmetrical, full of life flavor. This is a rare painting.

During the Warring States period, lacquerware had a wide variety and a large number, which had penetrated into all fields of life. During the Warring States period, the craft of lacquerware has made great progress, with gorgeous and exquisite patterns and many kinds unheard of, among which fetal bones and decorative techniques have made the greatest progress. Previously, lacquerware was mainly made of thick wooden tires. Since the mid-Warring States period, a large number of thin-plate tires have been used to adapt to the rolling of various cylindrical containers. This greatly reduces the difficulty of wood carving and improves the production efficiency. At this time, exquisite lacquerware such as high relief and round carving appeared, which reflected the combination of carving art and lacquerware manufacturing, such as the high relief lacquerware unearthed from the tomb of Zeng Houyi in Sui County, Hubei Province.

More importantly, in the mid-Warring States period, lacquerware made by the "bodiless method" appeared, which had the characteristics of lightness, firmness, good paint liquid permeability, strong adhesion and stable shape, marking the great progress of lacquerware handicraft industry in the Warring States period. The technical achievements of lacquerware in the Warring States period are also reflected in the mosaic technology. Some lacquerware surfaces are decorated with gold foil cut into various patterns. Later, a "buckle" appeared, that is, a gold, silver and copper hoop was inserted at the mouth edge of the thin wooden tire or the tire clamp device. At the same time, lacquerware is also equipped with accessories such as copper auxiliary head and metal cover button. At this time, the patterns and patterns are widely used, with dragons, phoenixes, birds and animals as the most, and the brushwork is smooth, such as the "hunting pot" unearthed in Changsha, with exaggerated and bold patterns and bright colors, which has high artistic value.

6. Gold and silver wares

Gold and silver wares are utensils and decorations made of gold and silver. Gold and silver have good ductility, and can be made into extremely thin gold and silver foil, and can be drawn into slender gold and silver wire, which is suitable for making exquisite decorations and utensils. China used gold and silver to make all kinds of artifacts very early.

The earliest gold wares in China were produced in Shang Dynasty. In Henan, Hebei, Beijing, Shanxi and other places, gold wares were unearthed in Shang Dynasty ruins and tombs. Among them, gold pieces, gold leaves, gold foils and other ornaments were unearthed in the central area of Shang and Yin Dynasties, while gold armbands and gold earrings were unearthed in areas far away from this area. Among them, the gold armband is hammered, and both ends are hammered into sectors and then bent into rings; One end of the gold earring is hammered into a bell mouth shape, the other end is hammered into a pointed shape, and the whole gold earring is bent into a circle.

The gold wares in the late Shang Dynasty were mainly unearthed in Lanjiagou behind the Shanxi Building, which belonged to the combination of Shang culture and northern culture. Three gold Er-shaped vessels were unearthed here, two of which are the same size and the other is smaller. Both of them have a bead, one end of which is curled like a vortex, the other end of which is flat, with a filament tail handle protruding, and the tip is folded into a B shape, which is strange in shape.

During the Warring States period, the manufacturing technology of gold and silver utensils developed rapidly. Gold and silver daily necessities and decorations have become an important part of aristocratic and upper-class life. The gold and silver vessels in the Central Plains are mainly found in the Zhou Tomb of Jincun, Luoyang. This is the tomb of Zhou Wang and his subordinate officials at the end of the Warring States Period. The unearthed gold and silver utensils include three silver cups, three silver boxes, three silver clips and a silver plaque. The Yangtze River basin is represented by the gold wares unearthed from the tomb of Zeng Houyi in Suixian County, Hubei Province, including the golden lamp 1 lamp, the golden dagger 1 handle, the golden cup 1 piece and the golden cover.

The golden lantern unearthed from the tomb of Zeng Houyi is 10.7 cm in height, 15. 1 cm in diameter and weighs 2 150 g, which is the largest and heaviest known pre-Qin gold ware. The mouth of the cup is straight, the abdomen is shallow and the bottom is round. There are two symmetrical ring ears on the outside of the abdomen and three inverted phoenix feet on the bottom. There is a round handle in the center of the dome of the lampshade, and there are three equidistant external cards along the edge of the cover, which are just buckled with the bowl mouth. The lamp body and the lamp cover are cast with fine plane and ripple patterns.