China ancient civil servant selection management system. The selection of civil servants mainly solves the source of officials, and the management of official positions includes the appointment, performance appraisal, rewards and punishments, rank, salary, vacation and retirement of officials.

Civil servant election system

There are many ways to choose officials in ancient China, such as hereditary, universal, military service, recommendation, lang election, cronyism and imperial examination system, which mainly includes three stages and three systems, namely, the hereditary system in pre-Qin, the recommendation system from Qin and Han Dynasties to Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, and the imperial examination system from Sui and Tang Dynasties to Ming and Qing Dynasties.

Genetic line

Also known as Shiqing Stone Furnace System, it prevailed in Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties. At the end of primitive society, after the demise system of "the world is public" was destroyed, the hereditary system of "adult ceremony" appeared. Hereditary system is characterized by the unity of kingship and clan power. It determines the appointment of government officials at all levels through family blood relationship, and determines the rank and rank of officials according to blood relationship. All people who set titles and official positions have the right to choose from generation to generation.

Recommendation system

It is an official selection system for recommending talents and awarding official positions. The recommended standard is mainly moral integrity, rather than relying entirely on family background. It broke through the barrier of the hereditary system of aristocratic lineage in the pre-Qin period. The appearance of the system of investigation and recruitment in the Western Han Dynasty marked the maturity of the recommendation system, while the implementation of the "Nine-grade Zheng Zhi System" in the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties marked its decline.

According to the object of investigation stipulated by the imperial edict, the inspection is conducted by senior officials of the central or local governments, and the system of recommending scholars or junior officials to the central government through inspection and selection is also the essence of the recommendation system. Chaju can be divided into imperial edicts and annual decrees. Imperial edicts were used by emperors to select special talents. Local governors regularly recommend talents to the court by annual decrees. The main themes of Chaju are virtue and founder, filial piety, Dr. imperial academy's disciples and special topics. Sometimes the emperor will use "countermeasures" against the virtuous founder. The exam is conducted in the form of "shooting strategy". Expropriation is a system of selecting and appointing officials subordinate to emperors and officials. The characteristics of the emperor and the recruitment of talents are "expropriation", and the appointment of aides and officials by officials is "expropriation". At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, begging for help, forming a clique, and practicing fraud prevailed, and the procuratorial system gradually deteriorated.

During the period of Cao Wei, Wang Pi accepted the suggestion of Chen Qun, the official minister, and implemented the "Nine-grade Official Law", that is, the "Nine-grade Official System". Officials are set up in counties, which are responsible for judging local scholars according to their family background and moral integrity, and collecting public opinion so that the court can reward officials according to their grades. The "Nine Grades System" is the development of the procuratorial system, which restores the local power to choose officials from the central government. The criteria for selecting talents tend to be more detailed. After the strengthening of the rule of the Wei and Jin dynasties, the system appeared many disadvantages such as weight and random evaluation. The gate of the aristocratic family controlled the rights and the elections. In the later period, "the noble gate valve has the glory of the world, and the ordinary family surnamed Han family has no way to enter." Nine-product positive system has become a tool of gate valve rule.

imperial examination system

After the Sui Dynasty unified the whole country, in order to strengthen centralization, Emperor Wendi of Sui Dynasty abolished the Nine-grade Zhengzhong system in 587 and set up the Jinshi Department. Yang Di, Emperor Yangdi of Sui Dynasty, established the Jinshi Department, and established the imperial examination system characterized by public examinations and selecting talents on the basis of merit. The imperial examination system was founded in Sui Dynasty, formed in Tang Dynasty, developed in Song Dynasty and strengthened in Ming Dynasty. It was the main official appointment system in the middle and late feudal society of China. Its main features are: ① Open examination and fair competition to a certain extent. In addition to advocating the Excellence of industry and commerce, regardless of family wealth, as long as they have certain cultural knowledge, they can openly apply for counties. It broke through the rule of the door since the Wei and Jin Dynasties and opened up a road for the scholars of the small and medium landlord class to enter the official position. ② The examination system is becoming more and more complete. The imperial examination is divided into imperial examiners. According to the nature of the subject matter, you can also give nothing, martial arts. The article can be divided into two parts: formal theme and formal theme. The official department is a system of regularly taking doctors according to subjects. There are also many routine subjects, such as scholar, Ming Jing, Jinshi, Faming, Ming suan, Boy, etc. The examination methods and contents of each subject are different. Candidates come from more and more regular sources, belonging to the Beijing or state schools. Those who pass the local examinations are called "xianggong". As for the examination procedures, there were state examinations and provincial examinations in the Tang Dynasty, and palace examination was added in the Song Dynasty. After the Ming Dynasty, there were three-year exams: college exams, provincial exams, general exams and court exams. The emperor personally decided the ranking and named it one, one, two and three, ranking first, second and third. ③ Cultural knowledge is the main admission standard. The imperial examination has different subjects and different contents. They are all based on cultural knowledge. The imperial examination system has certain positive significance in the early stage. After the autocratic monarchy in Ming and Qing dynasties was strengthened, the imperial examination system changed greatly from the content to the form. The main manifestations are as follows: ① The content of the exam is biased towards righteousness and is not practical. The examination proposition must be based on Zhu's four books and five classics, and "speak for sages". Confucianism has become a compulsory course for entering the official position. ② Eight-part essay chooses form. Bound people's minds. ③ The examination questions are fragmented, biased, difficult, strange and abstruse, and the corruption in officialdom is increasing day by day. The imperial examination system gradually became an obstacle to social development and was finally abolished in the late Qing Dynasty (see the imperial examination system).

Although the imperial examination system was the main way to select officials after Sui and Tang Dynasties, hereditary system, recommendation system and other official selection systems, such as military service, official promotion, official donation and official seal, still exist as supplementary forms of the imperial examination system.

Official management system

Including the appointment of officials, performance appraisal, rewards and punishments, rank salary and vacation retirement.

appointment

In order to ensure the political level of officials at all levels, all previous dynasties attached importance to the appointment of officials after selection. In order to ensure the quality of recommended officials, the Qin Dynasty stipulated that "those who are incompetent are culpable of punishment" (Biography of Historical Records and Fan Sui). After the Han Dynasty, there were various restrictions on the appointment of officials, and the court had certain requirements on the candidates' family background, occupation, property, qualifications, nationality, physique and appearance. During the Wei and Jin Dynasties, the Han nationality was restricted from serving as senior officials, and there were certain ethnic restrictions on the appointment of officials in the Sixteen States, the Northern Wei Dynasty, the Yuan Dynasty and the Qing Dynasty. In a hierarchical bureaucratic team, background and qualifications are the priority conditions for being an official. The more perfect the bureaucracy, the stricter the restrictions on birth and qualifications.

In order to avoid favoritism in officialdom, officials have been asked to avoid it since the Eastern Han Dynasty. The Eastern Han Dynasty practiced the "Three Mutual Laws". Its basic spirit is that local people are not allowed to be local officials, and marriage rooms are not allowed to supervise each other. It was also stipulated in the Han Dynasty that brothers, sons, nephews and relatives who were related by marriage were not allowed to work in a department or region. If they are elected to work in a department or region, one of them should announce his withdrawal. The Tang dynasty not only stipulated that officials could not serve in their own countries. And it is not allowed to be an official in the neighboring county where you are born. Tang also stipulated that all officials related to their duties or supervision and inspection should be avoided by their relatives. For example, the prime minister's son can't be an admonisher and his brother can't work in the same province. In the Qing dynasty, the regulations on the avoidance of official positions were stricter, such as clearly stipulating that you should not be an official within 500 miles of your original residence; The heads of departments in charge of provincial affairs of the central ministries shall not use the people of this province; Children of Beijing officials with three or more titles, governors and other local officials, cannot serve as censors in Beijing.

In some dynasties, there were some special regulations on the appointment of officials. For example, in the Tang dynasty, the conditions of body, speech, calligraphy and judgment were added to the appointment criteria of officials, requiring those who entered the official to be magnificent in appearance, bold in rhetoric, neat and beautiful in calligraphy and excellent in literary and artistic judgment.

After the officials are appointed, the imperial court will issue them with official title certificates. Since the Warring States period, there have been ribbons with different metallic textures such as gold, silver and copper, and ribbons with different colors such as purple, cyan, black and yellow, indicating the rank of officials.

Appointed officials have a one-year probation period since the Han Dynasty, and those who are incompetent are either transferred, moved to the left or dismissed. Before the official conferment in Ming Dynasty, there were internship stages of "learning affairs" and "inspecting politics".

7. Ancient central official system in China.

China's slave society, feudal society, central government organs and their official system.

Central official system in slave society

In the Xia Dynasty, Wang Xia was assisted by six ministers. Sikong is the first of the six departments, Hou Ji is in charge of agriculture, Stuart is the bishop, Dali is in charge of prisons, * * * is in charge of all kinds of engineering construction, and dangerous people are in charge of animal husbandry in Shanze. In addition, the Xia Dynasty has initially established an institution responsible for military affairs, agriculture and taxation. The Shang dynasty established a central organization centered on the king. The assistant minister is Yin. Under it, he is in charge of service. Theocracy played an important role in political life, so the religious officials in charge of sacrifice, divination and chronicle were the most prominent at that time. The central organization of the Western Zhou Dynasty has made great progress. There were three officials who assisted the King of Zhou: Tai Shi, Tai Fu and Tai Bao. There are "three doctors" under the three officials: Chang Bo, also known as Shepard; The appointment of officials is permanent, also called appointee; Officials in charge of government affairs are quasi-officials, also known as quasi-officials. Administrative officers are divided into two systems: Qingshiliang and Taishiliao. There are Stuart, Sima and three officials under Qingshiliang, who are in charge of farming, levying slaves and building slaves respectively. Taishiliao is the administrative department in charge of calendar, sacrifice, divination, culture and education. Compared with the Shang Dynasty, the status of religious affairs officers in the Western Zhou Dynasty declined.

The Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period is a period of social change. With the advancement of feudalism, important changes have taken place in the government institutions of various vassal States. During the Spring and Autumn Period, there appeared successively the main consuls who assisted the monarch and handled government affairs. Qin called Shangqing, Yaqing and Dayu, Chu called Lingyin, and Qi, Jin, Lu and Zheng called each other. Although the names of different countries are different, their status and status are equivalent to the later "phase". The Central Committee members Situ, Sima and Si Kou are still the chief executives of the government. Other important officials are: Si Tian, who is in charge of land tax, Si Tian, who is in charge of finance, and Shan Ze and hunting. With the increase of contacts between vassal States, countries set up pedestrians to take charge of diplomacy. The historian Tai Shigong plays an important role, and his duty is to "remember major events and write books first". At the beginning of the Warring States, with the progress of political reform movements in various countries, it has become an important feature of the central official system. The prime minister and prime minister, as the first of the hundred officials, have become the official positions generally set up in various countries. Due to historical and traditional reasons, the official system of various countries is still not unified. Great changes have taken place in the state of Qi, and the following five senses have been established: Datian, Dali and Fu. Chu is a department of its own, with Ling Yin as the highest official of the central government and Yahweh, Fu and General as senior military attaché s of the government.

In 2265438 BC, Qin Shihuang unified China and established an autocratic and centralized feudal empire. From then on to the Opium War in 1840, the development and evolution of the central official system in feudal society for more than two thousand years went through three stages.

Central official system in Qin and Han Dynasties

Qin and Han dynasties established the system of three public officials and nine ministers centered on the emperor. These three public officials are the Prime Minister, the Imperial Adviser and the Imperial Adviser, who are in charge of administration, supervision and military affairs respectively. Minister nine is the chief executive of all departments of the central government: as the head of the nine ministers, he is responsible for the etiquette and cultural education of the ancestral temple; The doctor in charge of the guard at the palace gate is Suwei's attendant; Wei Wei is the palace guard officer; Servants are in charge of the emperor's chariots and horses, and also in charge of the national horse administration; Ting Wei is the highest judicial officer of the central government; Dianke is in charge of ethnic affairs and employment; Zong Zheng specializes in royal affairs; The duty of treating the internal history of millet is to collect salt, iron, money, grain rent tax and national financial revenue and expenditure; Shaofu is responsible for collecting mountain tax, sea tax and pond tax, and manufacturing official handicrafts for the royal family. In addition to Jiuqing, there are squadron leaders in charge of public security in Beijing, and Dachangqiu in charge of civil construction such as palaces, ancestral temples and tombs. During the Qin and Han Dynasties, Jiuqing was mainly responsible for government administrative affairs, and other ministers mainly served the emperor and the court. State affairs and the monarch.

In order to strengthen the imperial power and weaken the power of the prime minister, Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty established the Sino-Korean system, that is, selected a group of lower-ranking court officials to participate in court affairs. Among them, Shangshu, who was in charge of documents for the emperor, and some court officials held high positions. State affairs often consult officials such as Shangshu, Shizhong, General, etc. who serve in the "China" court, and then inform officials of "foreign dynasties" headed by the prime minister of their actual functions. Officials from China and North Korea are highly valued. The establishment of China-Korea system is not only the product of the contradiction between imperial power and relative power, but also the result of the expansion of imperial officials' power. During the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, the powers of Fu (renamed Tai Wei when Emperor Wu was in power), Da (renamed historian when Emperor Wu was in power) and Prime Minister (renamed Da Situ when mourning the emperor) were further weakened. Expand the power of Shangshu, appoint Shangshu as the director, and set the power of fashion books in the Eastern Han Dynasty. There are 1 officials, 65,438 servants and 6 ministers, who are in charge of the three Cao Cao, the official, the people, the guest, the two thousand stone and the Beijing official respectively, which have divided or replaced some of the functions and powers of Jiuzhong. From the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Wei and Jin Dynasties, the central government affairs gradually changed from three provinces to three provinces, and the administrative affairs gradually changed from Jiuqing to six ministries.

Central official system in Tang and Song Dynasties

During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the autocratic central government became more and more complete, and a system of three provinces and six departments centered on the emperor was established. "In the third day of the Tang Dynasty, the provinces merged, and the book owner gave an order and closed the door, and the book owner chased it." The governors of the three provinces have the post of prime minister, forming a mechanism of clear division of labor and mutual restraint among the three provinces. This is an important change in the administrative system. Shangshu province is the center of central administration, which has six departments and twenty-four departments. Shangshu It is the center of government affairs. The governor of Shangshu Province has left and right servants and officials, all of whom work here. There are left and right parts, divided into six parts. The six departments evolved from Cao Cao's six departments, headed by the official department, which is responsible for the management of selecting officials, awarding officials and examiners, and has four departments under its jurisdiction: the official department, the department of printing, the department of learning and the department of examination. The Ministry of Housing is responsible for population, land, currency and taxation, and has four divisions: the Ministry of Housing, the Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of Warehouse. The ritual department is in charge of etiquette, sacrifice and tribute, and consists of four divisions: ritual department, ancestral department, catering department and host and guest; The Ministry of War is in charge of selecting soldiers, maps, chariots, war horses and armor, and has four divisions: the Ministry of War, the staff side, the driving department and the treasurer department. The criminal department is in charge of laws and regulations, criminal law, exile and the policy of restoring bans, and has four divisions: the criminal department, the official department, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The Ministry of Industry is in charge of politics such as Yamazawa, wasteland reclamation, architecture, artisans, etc., and has four divisions, namely, the Ministry of Industry, wasteland reclamation, security department and water department. The six Shangshu books formed in Sui and Tang Dynasties have made great progress compared with Jiuqing in Qin and Han Dynasties in terms of name, authority and organizational system. In addition to the six departments, there are nine halls and five prisons, which evolved from the Qin and Han Dynasties. As Liu Cao replaced some functions of Jiuqing in Wei and Jin Dynasties, Guanglu Temple, which was originally guarded by Gong Wei (evolved from a doctor), was specialized in wine, ceremony and meals. Weiwei Temple specializes in weapons and etiquette tents, not guards; Taibu Temple is in charge of the administration of generals and horses, regardless of the emperor's chariots and horses; Ting Wei was renamed Dali Temple, in charge of interrogation and supervision, and the judicial administration was returned to the Ministry of Punishment; Crack temple sponsored etiquette, and foreign dynasties hired etiquette department; Sinong Temple manages warehousing, and the tax revenue belongs to the Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development; The responsibilities of Zongzheng Temple have not changed; The newly-built Taifu Temple is in charge of the collection of Jinbo House. The five supervisors are imperial academy, Shaofu, General, Military Equipment and Water Supervision respectively, and are in charge of school education, national and court handicraft manufacturing, palaces, city corridors and government offices. Nine halls and five prisons are independent in form, but in fact they are offices that cooperate with six ministries.

The central institutions of the Song Dynasty were very different before and after the gods Yuanfeng. Before Yuan Feng, there were three provinces and six departments, only in name only. Taking "the same book and the same official" as the true prime minister, taking political affairs as the deputy phase, and always taking administration; In addition, the Privy Council was set up to be in charge of military affairs, and three departments, namely, the Transportation Department, the Iron and Salt Department and the Expenditure Department, were in charge of finance, which resulted in the separation of administrative, military and financial powers, and the power of the Prime Minister was greatly weakened. The power of the six departments has also been encroached by an increasing number of institutions, such as the official department, Liu Neiquan, the western examiner's hospital and the third-class hospital. Ministry of housing, belonging to the third division; Does belong to the courtyard of etiquette; Ministry of war, the power belongs to the Privy Council; The criminal department affiliated to the trial court picketed the criminal supervision department in Beijing; Ministry of industry, whose power belongs to three departments, and so on. The power of some temples and prisons in the Nine Halls and Five Prisons has also been transferred in a similar way. After God lived in Yuanfeng for five years (1082), he reformed the central official system, removed the three departments and all miscellaneous departments, and basically returned to the pattern of three provinces and six departments in the Tang Dynasty. Different from the Tang Dynasty, ministers were all shot at the same time by left servants, and ministers were all shot at the same time by right servants. In addition, the status of the Privy Council was retained. The central administrative system in Yuan Dynasty changed the three provinces system in Tang and Song Dynasties into one province system-Zhongshu Province, which is the highest government organ and consists of six departments.

During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the autocratic centralization of feudal monarchs in China developed to the extreme. In the early Ming Dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang made major adjustments to the central official system. First, he abolished the prime minister system since Qin and Han dynasties as a cabinet system for consulting and handling daily affairs. In terms of supervision, he changed Yushitai from Han Dynasty to Duchayuan. Militarily, the governor's office was changed to the governor's office of the five armies. The six departments were upgraded to be directly responsible to the emperor, and a huge eunuch organization and the factory health secret service organization under its control were established. Among them, abolishing the prime minister and forming a cabinet are the main contents of government system adjustment. The Cabinet is composed of bachelor of imperial academy, which is divided into first assistant, second assistant and group assistant. Its main duty is to "draft the ticket", that is, to draft the imperial edict on behalf of the emperor and approve the memorial. After Yongle, bachelor's degree

The Qing Dynasty was founded by Manchu nobles and was initially discussed by the Eight Banners and the King's Meeting. During Yongzheng period, soldiers were frequently used in northwest China. In order to discuss military affairs in time, a quartermaster room was set up, which was later renamed as "Handling Military Affairs Department" or simply Military Affairs Department. It is a temporary organization, which not only replaces the king's meeting, but also expands its power. It became the central auxiliary administrative department directly controlled by the emperor to handle national military and political affairs. Its characteristics are: high efficiency, high speed and confidentiality. The functions and powers of the six ministries in the Qing dynasty were reduced, and they were no longer administrative centers, so they could not directly issue decrees to lower levels. In Qing Dynasty, only Dali Temple, Taichang Temple, Guanglu Temple, Taipu Temple and Honglin Temple were left, and Zongren Temple was above the six departments. The fifth supervisor was only in imperial academy, and the other four supervisors were merged into the Ministry of Industry.

8. China's ancient military system

In order to seize and consolidate political power, the ancient ruling class in China formed a set of systems in the activities of organizing, managing, using, developing and reserving military forces.

China's ancient military system was called "military system" and "military system" in ancient times. It comes into being with the emergence of the country and the army, adapts to the economic and political system of the whole country, embodies the will of the ruling class and serves the interests of the ruling class. From Xia Dynasty to Daoguang period of Qing Dynasty, China's military system experienced two stages of development: slave society and feudal society. From simple to complex, from low to high, the main contents include: military system, establishment, management education, training, military attache, military service personnel, army dispatch and wartime command, food weapons and horse administration support. Its basic function is to ensure military construction, so as to effectively prepare and carry out wars and ensure the stability and development of sovereignty.

Military System of Slave Society According to Shi Gan, the first slave country in the history of China, Xia, was born in the 2nd/kloc-0th century BC. As an important part of the state power, the army came into being at the same time, and the military establishment and reward and punishment system were established in wartime. Wang Xia is in charge of the country's military and political power, and the main administrative officials are "six people". According to Oracle Bone Inscriptions's records, Shang Dynasty took Wang Shang as the supreme military commander. As the times require, the Shang army, with nobles and leaders of Fang as senior military generals and divisions as organizational units, established the military service and mobilization system of "sending people" and "sending people" and the training system of shooting, defending and hunting. Chariots was the main equipment of the army, and the military system of the Western Zhou Dynasty was greatly developed compared with that of the Xia and Shang Dynasties. There are six in the west, eight in the week and eight in the yin, a total of 22. Rites and music were conquered from the emperor. Although vassal states and some noble ministers have a small number of troops, they must obey the unified command of Zhou Wang.

The characteristics of the military system in slave society are as follows: ① Adapted to the political system centered on kingship, the king is the supreme military commander and often goes to war in person. Although the army of Fang governors had certain independence, it had to listen to the king's orders in wartime; (2) The standing army evolved from the Royal Guard, expanded continuously, and played an important role in the campaign. In wartime, the army mainly relied on temporary conscription; (3) the blood race military service system of slave owners and nobles and the civilian military system of military, political, military and civilian integration; Military and political officials implement a "clear record" system that is compatible with the patriarchal clan system.

The military system in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period was a period of great change in the disintegration of slavery and the formation of feudalism. While reforming the political and economic systems, various governors and monarchs representing the interests of the emerging landlord class successively reformed the military system to adapt to the smooth realization of political and economic changes, such as Qi's "issuing military orders in internal affairs", Zheng's "dry heavy taxes" and Lu's "dry heavy taxes". The state of Jin "worked as a farmland" and "worked as a state soldier". Especially in the Warring States period, Qin Xiaogong appointed Shang Yang to carry out political reform, establish a military system, improve household registration, organize military ranks, and collect military taxes from farmers. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, a large number of military monographs represented by Sun Tzu appeared. In the fierce competition for political reform, they fought for hegemony, and then unified the world by force, and reformers and innovators rose. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, only a dozen countries were left, which were finally unified by the State of Qin. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, many major changes took place in the military system: ① Some vassal States implemented reforms to increase their national strength and military strength, and the Zhou royal family declined and lost control of the vassal States. "Rites and music were conquered by princes" and "doctors were recruited". (2) the county conscription system, which mainly collects farmers, is also borne by farmers. The sources of soldiers and military contributions have expanded. (3) the combination of military and political institutions is convenient for war mobilization. Expanding the army, the organizational system has developed from "division" to "army". (4) the scale and geographical expansion of the war, from the plains to the mountains and rivers, there are infantry, cavalry and sailors in addition to chariots. Step warfare has replaced car warfare as the main form of combat. ⑤ Civil and military affairs are distinct, resulting in the system of sending troops according to the bugle and rewarding military exploits. ⑤ Military and political integration.

The military system of feudal society China's feudal society experienced three divisions and three unification from the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period to the Qin and Han Dynasties, from the Three Kingdoms, the Northern and Southern Dynasties to the Sui and Tang Dynasties, and from the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms, the Song, Liao and Xia Dynasties to the Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties. Correspondingly, the feudal military system also experienced the initial stage, the development stage and the later stage.