In prehistoric times, the ancients knew to use symbols to record or explain their living environment, the route they walked, and so on. at present

The earliest map people can find is the map of Babylon carved on pottery (as shown in figure 0 1-0 1). According to textual research, this is a map of Babylon and its surrounding environment more than 4500 years ago. The Tigris River and the Euphrates River originate in the northern mountainous areas and flow to the swamps in the south. The city of Babylon is located between the two mountains.

The ancient map that has survived to this day is the map of Nipur Town, which was drawn in BC 1500. It is stored in the mud excavated by the University of Pennsylvania at the end of Nipur Site (now Niffar, Iraq) 1 9 (as shown in Figure 0 1-02). The center of the picture is the name of Nipur city marked in Sumerian, the Euphrates River in the southwest and the Nenbirdu Canal in the northwest. The canal in the city divides niebuhr into two parts, with walls on three sides, and the eastern part is unknown due to the defect of clay tablets. The city walls are painted with gates and marked with names. Outside the city wall, there is a moat in the north and south to protect the city, and the Euphrates River is the barrier in the west. There are temples and parks in the city, but there are no signs of residential areas. The map scale is about1:1.2000.

There are also maps of gold mines drawn by ancient Egyptians on reeds from BC 1330 to BC 13 17.

China's records and legends about maps can be traced back to 4000 years ago. Zuo Zhuan recorded the Jiuding map of Xia Dynasty. There are records of "River Map" and "Luoshu Map" in the ancient classic Book of Changes, which indicates the origin of China's books. There are 17 records about maps in Zhou Li handed down from ancient times, and maps are related to 14 official positions in Zhou Guan, such as Four Books Annotated by Tiangong, Zhang Bang Zhong Edition and Land Map. "Stuart, the local official" is in charge of the map of the state land, and its number helps the king protect the state. Based on the map of the world, we can know the region of Kyushu and the number of wide wheels, distinguish the name of its mountains, rivers and hills from its original name, and at the same time distinguish the contemptible number of its country, so as to seal it for the boundary and establish its country. And the owner of the tree "local official Si Tuleideng Si Tuleideng Jr." and "where people sue officials, land is not as good as power, and land litigation is to correct it"; Situ Tuxun Local Officials and Mastering Maps to Inform Local Affairs Guan Chun Zongbo Zuren and Xia Guan Sima Sixian take the map of Kyushu to know the obstacles of its mountains and rivers and reach its way. Xia Guan Sima Zhifang's family "holds the map of the world, the land of the world, and distinguishes the contemptibility of its country. Four barbarians and eight barbarians, seven Fu Jian and eight raccoons, five Rong and six Di people, their wealth and use, and the number of nine valleys and six livestock are important. "1June, 954, China archaeologists unearthed the bronze ware" Hou Yi Ya? "The early Western Zhou Dynasty was in Yandun Mountain, Dantu County, Jiangsu Province. There are two inscriptions engraved with the word 120 at the bottom, namely, "the map of the king of Wu, the map of becoming a king" and "the map of the east". This article records that Zhou Kangwang arrived at Yidi on the basis of these two maps, and held a ceremony to seal Hou. He said: "Only in April in Ding Wei, King Wu Wang went to the province and became a king to cut commercial maps, so he went to the east of the provincial or (national) map. Wang Li (location) is in Iraq, in Inner Mongolia, and in Nanxiang (direction). The king ordered Hou Yu to say, "This suits Hou Yu." According to textual research, the picture was made in BC 1027 or later. These records show that many kinds of maps, such as land maps, military maps and administrative maps, appeared in the Western Zhou Dynasty in China, and were applied in many aspects such as war, administration, transportation, taxation and engineering. Obviously, these maps have been separated from the original map stage and have an exact scientific overview. Unfortunately, our country has not seen these maps yet, and it needs underground archaeology to find them.

Maps of ancient and modern China.

Among the existing maps in China, the earliest one is the Map of Gui County, which was found in the tomb of Fangmatan in Tianshui in the 1980s and drawn on a wooden board by the Warring States Qin Dynasty (2 39 BC). The map shows the names of rivers, mountains, valleys, forests and tree species, with more than 80 notes and directions. The scale is about1∶ 300,000, which should represent the highest level of the map at that time. 1973 Three maps unearthed from Mawangdui Han Tomb in Changsha, Hunan Province provided precious historical materials for us to study maps of the Han Dynasty. All three paintings are painted on silk books, all of which were made before BC 168. Figure 0 1-03 is a topographic map.

The picture is a square with a length of 98cm, depicting Xiao Shui Gu, Nanling, Jiubenshan, the largest tributary of the upper reaches of Xiangjiang River in southern Changsha in the early Western Han Dynasty, and their surrounding areas, including mountains, rivers, settlements and roads. The outline of the mountain is represented by a closed curve, and the nine peaks of Jiuben Mountain with different heights are represented by nine columnar symbols with different heights. There are over 80 residential areas, over 20 roads and over 30 rivers. The other two are garrison maps, which show the locations and names of nine garrisons according to geography, and city maps, which show city walls, gates, towers, city streets and palace buildings. These three maps unearthed from Mawangdui Han Tomb are amazing for their early surveying and mapping time, rich content, high precision, high surveying and mapping level and high use value. ? Pei Xiu (AD 223-27 1) in Wei and Jin Dynasties worked as a local official, managing the country's household registration, land and taxation, and later as a prime minister. He drew a map of Gong Yu and simplified the world map circulated at that time into Abbott map. He has been accumulating painting experience and founded the earliest complete painting theory in the world-"painting six styles", that is, dividing rate, aiming at accuracy, being in the way, being excellent, evil and straight. Fraction is the scale, the accurate sight is the direction, the distance in the road is the distance, the height is the relative height, evil is the fluctuation of the ground slope, and straight is the conversion of the fluctuation distance of the site and the corresponding distance on the plane. Pei Xiu's map theory had an obvious influence on later generations. ? In the Tang Dynasty (730-805 AD), Jia Dan compiled the Map of Longyou in Guanzhong and Jiuzhou in Shannan and the Map of Huayi in Hainan through comparative analysis, interview and investigation of the circulated maps. The latter is based on Pei Xiu's painting theory, and it is made of "one inch folds a hundred miles", which has a far-reaching influence on later generations.

Song Dynasty is a glorious era in the map history of our country. Shortly after the reunification of the Northern Song Dynasty, the national master map "Chunhua Tianxia Map" was compiled based on more than 400 maps donated from all over the country. In today's forest of steles, there is a stone carved in Shaoxing for seven years in the Southern Song Dynasty, with flowers and pictures on both sides. The picture on the right is a part of the planned Yuji map in the planning map. As can be seen from the graphics of the Yangtze River and the Yellow River, the accuracy of the pictures is very high. In the Song Dynasty, Shen Kuo (A.D. 103 1 ~ 1095) conducted a large-scale leveling, found the existence of magnetic declination, and revised the compass to 24 directions. The map of Shouling compiled by him is an atlas of states and counties in the world, including 20 maps. He is also the author of the geography book Meng Qian Bi Tan. ?

In Yuan Dynasty, Zhu Siben (A.D. 1273 ~ 1333) compiled a two-volume Map on the basis of geographical investigation and historical evolution research.

Mindeiro Hongxian (A.D. 1504 ~ 1564) based on Zhu Siben's map, analyzed the advantages and disadvantages of the maps of past dynasties, and compiled dozens of "Guang Yu Tu" with a planned grid. He created 24 kinds of map symbols, which played an important role in the expression of map content. At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Chen Zushou compiled a three-volume map of the Imperial Career. Zheng He (A.D. 137 1 ~ 1435) made seven voyages to the Western Ocean, and his companions left behind four important geographical works, which resulted in Zheng He's Navigation Atlas. Italian missionary Matteo Ricci introduced a complete map of mountains, land and sea to China. 1584~? During the period of 1608, he compiled 12 world maps, and introduced regional concepts such as latitude and longitude, north and south poles, equator, Pacific Ocean and South Africa, and North and South America discovered by navigation to China.

During the reign of Kangxi in the Qing Dynasty, the Qing government hired a large number of foreigners to measure the latitude and longitude of 630 points in the country by astronomical and geodetic methods, and drew a large area map, making a Panorama of the Forbidden City, which was actually 32 maps divided by province. According to Joseph Needham's book History of Science and Technology in China, the map was "not only the best of all the maps in Asia at that time, but also better and more accurate than all the maps in Europe at that time". During the Qianlong period, on this basis, the surveying and mapping data of Xinjiang and Tibet were added and incorporated into the map of the Inner House of Qianlong. The Qing Dynasty completed the transformation of China map from planning scheme to latitude and longitude mapping method, which was a great progress in the history of map making. In the late Qing Dynasty, Wei Yuan (A.D. 1794 ~ 1859) compiled an atlas "Atlas of Sea Countries" by means of latitude and longitude mapping. There are 74 maps in this atlas, and a variety of map projections are selected, which is a sign of the transformation of cartographic methods. Yang Shoujing (A.D. 1839 ~ 19 15) compiled 70 dangerous maps of geographical evolution over the years, which was a masterpiece in the history of China's historical evolution map, and later became the basic data of the centralized historical atlas of China people and national universities. ?

After the Revolution of 1911, the Nanjing government established the General Bureau of Land Survey on 19 12 to carry out topographic mapping and mapping. To 1928, Guoxin Survey 1: 2? On the basis of the national topographic maps of the Qing Dynasty, more than 400 topographic maps with the scale of 50,000 and 3,595 topographic maps with the scale of1:50,000 were investigated and supplemented, and 3,883 topographic maps with the scale of1:kloc-0/:200,000 were completed and recorded in 1923 ~ 65438+. In addition to the military departments, the surveying and mapping business of water conservancy, railway, soil management and other departments has also developed, and some maps have been made. By the end of 1948, 8000 topographic maps of1∶ 50,000 had been completed in China, and 65438 were edited twice in 1930 ~ 1938 and 1943 ~ 1948. In the aspect of atlas compilation, 1934 The Atlas of the Republic of China published by Shanghai Shenbao Museum expressed landforms with contour lines and layered colors, and was printed in copper gravure, which was of epoch-making significance in the history of atlas in China. During the war of liberation, the revolutionary army also attached great importance to map protection. During the Second Revolutionary Civil War, the Red Army headquarters set up a map department to collect map data and make some simple maps and plots. On the eve of the Long March, the Map Section made a topographic map of southern Jiangxi with the scale of 1∶65438+ 10,000 for the main Red Army. When crossing the snowy grassland, the "1: 1 10,000 camping road map" was drawn. During the War of Liberation, maps were widely used, and various field armies set up mapping departments and cooperated with the army to do a lot of map support work. ["JP3"] For example, on the eve of the Battle of Ping Jin in 1948, aerial photographs of western Peiping and maps of garrison fortifications in Peiping, Tianjin and Baoding were compiled, which contributed to the victory of the War of Liberation.

After the founding of New China, cartography developed rapidly. 1950 set up the bureau of surveying and mapping of the military commission (later changed to the bureau of surveying and mapping of the general staff), 1956 set up the national bureau of surveying and mapping to lead the national surveying and mapping work.

On the basis of completing the topographic maps of1:50,000 and 1: 1 10,000 covering the whole country, the topographic map of1:50,000 was updated three times and the topographic map of1:0/10,000 was updated twice. The compilation of topographic maps of1:200,000,1:250,000, 1: 1 10,000 has been completed, and1:250,000 and1:have been completed.

1953, the Bureau of Surveying and Mapping of the General Staff Department organized the compilation of1:10.5 million national wall chart "The Whole Map of China People and the Country", which consists of 32 sheets. 1956 published1:40,000 southeast asia map. At the end of 1950s, a map of China people and the whole country with a scale of1∶ 2.5 million was compiled and published three times. Later, after many revisions and re-editing, it became a stable variety in the national wall chart of China. The map is rich in content, harmonious in color and clear in level, which better reflects the three-level topography of China and the framework of Chinese mainland. In the 1970s, the surveying and mapping departments of provinces (cities and autonomous regions) respectively completed the compilation of wall charts of provinces (cities and autonomous regions) and a large number of county and city maps.

In the compilation of atlas, the compilation of national atlas is the first. 1958 In July, sponsored by the State Bureau of Surveying and Mapping and China Academy of Sciences, experts from more than 30 units were recruited to form the National Atlas Editorial Committee, and it was determined that the National Atlas consisted of four volumes: general atlas, natural atlas, economic atlas and historical atlas, and later agricultural atlas and energy atlas were selected as topics. At present, natural atlas, economic atlas, agricultural atlas, general atlas and historical atlas have been published successively. These atlases have reached the international advanced level in scale, drawing level, printing and binding. Driven by the national atlas, relevant departments of various provinces and cities have compiled and published various types of atlases, among which there are many high-quality maps. The Atlas of Shenzhen, compiled by the former School of Land Science of Wuhan Technical University of Surveying and Mapping, won the "Excellent Works Award" for the first time in the Atlas category of cartographic works in China with 1999. The map of Shenzhen, a large wall chart with shading, won the highest prize again at the 200 1 international map exhibition. ?

History of foreign maps

In the 2nd century BC, erato Wan (276 ~ 195 BC) calculated the arc length of the earth meridian as? 39 700km, from which the size of the earth is calculated, and a map with the earth as a sphere is compiled for the first time. The Geographic Guide written by Ptolemy (AD 90 ~ 168) gave a detailed description of the known earth at that time, and attached 27 maps, one of which was a map of the world. He put forward many methods of making maps and created spherical projection and conical projection. The world map compiled by him with conic projection is of epoch-making significance, which has been used until16th century.

/kloc-After 0/5th century, European social capitalism began to sprout, and history entered the period of Renaissance, industrial revolution and geographical discovery. Navigation and exploration have made people have a new understanding of the continents and oceans on the earth, and provided opportunities for the development of maps. Geographer Mercator (A.D. 15 12 ~ 1594) founded isometric cylindrical projection, and used it to compile the world map in 1568. Because the isometric route on this map is a straight line, it provides great help for navigation. /kloc-the appearance of topographic maps measured in the 0/8th century makes the contents of the maps richer and more accurate. The symbol system of the map is constantly improving, the perspective landscape symbol is gradually replaced by the plane symbol, and the landform representation is also changed from halo to halo. The method developed to contour line method, and at the same time, the lithography of map appeared, which pushed the map to the modern stage. ? /kloc-in the 0/9th century, due to the need of searching the market and plundering, capitalist countries produced the requirement of compiling detailed maps with global uniform specifications. 189 1 year, the fifth international geographical congress held in Bern, Switzerland discussed and passed the resolution of compiling an international map in a million years. Then 1909 formulated the basic rules of 1: 1,000,000 map compilation at the international map conference held in London, and 19 13 held the second seminar on 1: 1,000,000 map compilation in Paris. At the same time, a large number of thematic maps have appeared, such as German Atlas of Nature and Atlas of Climate. ? In the 20th century, due to the emergence and development of photogrammetry, it had a great influence on map making, and a large number of map works with world influence appeared. Among them, there are1:2.5 million world maps compiled by seven socialist countries in eastern Europe led by the former Soviet Union, The Times Atlas of Britain, The Travelers Club Atlas of Italy, The Huck World Atlas of the former German Democratic Republic, The International World Atlas of the United States and the Canadian Atlas. It is particularly worth mentioning that the world atlas and ocean atlas of the former Soviet Union are masterpieces.

I have a general look at the history of map development and how people draw it in different historical periods, hoping it will be helpful for good luck.