Ancient Egyptian civilization is an indispensable part of world civilization, which was involved in some early works on the general history of the world, but there was no strict specialization at that time. In the first half of the 20th century, the study of ancient Egyptian civilization not only started as a special field, but also was brought into the category of ancient civilizations in the Near East. Studying the Near East as a whole reveals Egypt's position in the history of the Near East.

1. Special works on ancient Egyptian civilization

In the first half of the 20th century, there were two important works on the study of ancient Egyptian civilization. The first book is The Ancient Egyptians and the Origin of Civilization by G E Smith, which was first published in 19 1 1. Smith was originally an anatomist and anthropologist. He combined anthropology with the study of ancient Egyptian civilization, and published many books about mummies and the history of Egyptian civilization, the most important of which was The Origin of Ancient Egyptians and Civilization. There are two main arguments: first, civilization originated in Egypt; The first is the outward spread of Egyptian civilization. In the book, the author emphasizes: "There is no doubt that the essential factors of civilization really originated in Egypt." "In fact, Egypt is the creator of civilization." "According to her practical contribution to world civilization, Egypt should occupy a particularly prominent position in the hall of anthropology."

Smith not only fully affirmed the origin of civilization in Egypt and the important position of Egyptian civilization, but also put forward a theory or hypothesis about the spread of Egyptian civilization. At the end of 19 and the beginning of the 20th century, communication theory or diffusion theory was quite popular among some European anthropologists. They think that all the cultures in the world spread from one center or several centers, but they completely ignore other factors of cultural communication. As a representative of communication theory, Smith has repeatedly stressed that Egypt is the oldest civilization, and all other civilizations in the world are the result of the spread or diffusion of Egypt, at least directly or indirectly influenced by Egyptian civilization. As an anthropologist, Smith emphasized that "the spread of race originated in East Africa". Whether Arabs, southern Persians or any other nationalities, their physical characteristics are very similar to those of primitive Egyptians. [1] Smith has repeatedly stressed that "Neolithic culture in Western Europe ... originated from Egypt directly or indirectly, and the stone products of this period were copied from the monuments before the 6th Dynasty in Egypt." [2] When talking about the irrigated agriculture in Mesopotamia, he thought that the irrigated agriculture in Sumer came from Egypt. [3] When talking about human customs and art, the author points out: "Egypt, as the inventor of civilization, plays a leading role in the formation of beliefs, customs and funeral art." [4]

Regarding the reasons and ways of the spread of Egyptian civilization, Smith believes that "finding minerals such as copper has become one of the main reasons for the spread of civilization." "The understanding of the economic value of copper drove Egyptians to look for precious minerals abroad, which became a process of developing mineral deposits, and Egyptian civilization was spread all over the world." [5] In addition, he also talked about the role of seafarers and immigration activities in communication.

According to Smith's communication theory, we can draw a road map of Egypt's early cultural communication, including 12 routes: starting from Egypt, directly going to Crete, Syria, South Arabia, Sumer, India and so on; The transmission route from Elam and Turkey even reaches as far as China. [6]

As one of the main representatives of Pan-Egyptism in the communication school in the early 20th century, Smith made great contributions to the study of the spread and influence of civilizations between the Near East and between the Near East and European civilizations. After 1930s, the influence of this school gradually declined. The reason is that the extremely arbitrary Pan-Egyptism of the communication school has almost no market among professional historians and Egyptologists, and has been severely criticized by them, thinking that this view is too teleological. Some scholars even advocate that we must "abandon the concepts of center and periphery" and replace them with the polycentric growth theory of human civilization. [7]

In the first half of the 20th century, the second important book on the study of ancient Egyptian civilization was The Nile and Egyptian Civilization by A. Morai. The original calligraphy was published in 1926, followed by English and Chinese translations, which became an important work in the series of History of Civilization edited by Ogden. The book discusses the ancient Egyptian civilization from the perspective of folklore, so when discussing the social life and political system of Egypt, the author "takes religion as the hub". [8] Regarding the Egyptian kingship, Moray emphasized its sacredness. He devoted considerable space to introducing the title of king of Egypt, the ceremony of the king's accession to the throne and Sadr's Day. However, some terms he used in the history of political development, especially the "modernization" tendency of some professional terms, need to be treated with caution. For example, he thought that by the end of the 6th dynasty, absolutism had evolved into a feudal system in Europe; [9] From the China 12 dynasty to the 20th dynasty of the New Kingdom, it became "national socialism"; [10] During the reform of Okhennathan, Pharaoh wanted to promote "imperialism" and so on. [1 1] Nevertheless, the book Nile and Egyptian Civilization takes religion and folklore as the key link, links politics, art and literature, profoundly expounds the evolution of ancient Egyptian civilization, and provides us with rich and interesting contents that are rare in general historical works.

2. The study of ancient Egyptian civilization in ancient "Near East" civilization.

In addition to the special study of ancient Egyptian civilization itself, the study of ancient Egyptian civilization as a part of the "Near East" civilization has also been going on. At least three important works of ancient Egyptian civilization involve the study of "Near East" civilization. First, from clan to empire: social organizations in ancient East, co-authored by French scholars A. Morai and G. David. The book was published in 1923, translated into English in 1926 and translated into Chinese in 1936, and named Ancient History of the Near East.

From Clan to Empire is another masterpiece in the series of History of Civilization edited by Ogden. Its main contents and viewpoints can be summarized as follows: First, the author points out that the birthplace of civilization is in the southeastern Mediterranean, that is, from the Nile to Mesopotamia. In 4000 BC or earlier, there were no human footprints in Syria or Mesopotamia. At this time, the history of the Egyptians had begun. [12] Here, the author emphasizes the precocity of Egyptian civilization. Secondly, when it comes to the formation of Egyptian civilization, the author thinks that the production of industry in the Bronze Age is a sign of the formation of civilization, and the production of characters combined with phonetic symbols and ideographic symbols is another sign of the formation of civilization. [13] Thirdly, regarding the formation of the country, the author talked about the Egyptian god dynasty, the followers of Horus and the unification of menes. The author provides a model of Egypt's national unity: Nome-two kingdoms-unified kingdom. [14] Fourthly, regarding the origin of the Egyptian nation, the author refutes the theory of Asian national invasion in the pre-dynasty era and thinks that Egyptians should belong to the Mediterranean race. Fifthly, the author thinks that the monotheism promoted by Okhennathan in religious policy is imperialism. [16] Although some formulations in this book are not perfect and exact, it is still an important work to study the ancient history of the Near East.

In addition, there are two important works of Childe. Julia child is a famous British archaeologist and Marxist. He tried to establish the concept of "identity" in the development of human history and explain the process of historical development with materialism. His representative work on the ancient history of the Near East is a new exploration of the ancient East and the creation of human beings.

A New Exploration of the Ancient Orient was first published in 1934, and then reprinted many times, with French and Russian translations. This book focuses on the early civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia, and discusses the origins of Indian and European civilizations. As far as early Egyptian civilization is concerned, this is one of the works that systematically discuss the history from prehistoric Egypt to the formation of civilization based on archaeology. Among them, it is worth emphasizing that the author divides Egyptian prehistoric culture into three stages: Badali culture, Amra culture and Grace culture. The author not only discusses archaeology in detail, but also reveals the problems of social poverty, private ownership and slavery according to archaeological data. [17] As for the controversy about whether the culture between Amra and Grce is interrupted, the author thinks that "there is no obvious severance." [ 18]

This book also involves some historical theoretical issues. Some scholars often refer to the spread of conqueror culture to conquered land as "national migration". Julia child opposed this theory of migration and adhered to the basic theory of independent development of national culture. [19] Although julia child has made great contributions to the study of the origin of early Egyptian civilization, some of his expositions are still unacceptable. For example, the so-called "Mesopotamian monarchy and king burial ceremony adopted the monarchy of Egyptian Pharaoh." [20] He even thought that papyrus was "borrowed" by Egyptians from Sumerians. He also stressed that wheeled carts and pottery wheels spread from Sumer to India, and from India to the Orent River area in West Asia. [2 1] These viewpoints all show his "communication theory" thought. In fact, the interaction and influence between civilizations are inevitable, and it is not necessary to determine the spread and diffusion of civilizations by the civilization of a certain center or several centers. In The New Exploration of the Ancient East, julia child first discussed the transformation of prehistoric people from food gathering economy to food production economy, and the two major human revolutions of urban civilization, namely the Neolithic Revolution and the Urban Revolution, were all caused by the appearance of handicraft industry and trade.

Another important work of Gongzi is Man Created Himself, which was first published in 1936, and later revised and reprinted many times. Chinese translation is called History of Ancient Culture. This book focuses on three revolutions in the Near East from prehistoric times to civilized times: Neolithic Revolution, Urban Revolution and Human Knowledge Revolution. Julia child devoted considerable space to explaining the production activities of "grain gatherers" and the concept of "grain production economy". The transformation from the former to the latter is the evolution of human beings from gathering and hunting to farming and animal husbandry. He called this change "changing the human economy" and letting people control their food supply the first revolution. [22] This view has some truth. Secondly, on the issue of urban revolution, julia child pointed out: "The second revolution turned many self-sufficient small villages into populous cities; This kind of city was cultivated with advanced industry and foreign trade, and it officially formed a country. " [23] Finally, julia child put forward the revolution of human knowledge, arguing that "the origin of words and mathematics and the standardization of weight and measurement coincide with the revolution in time." [24] Here, julia child also specifically mentioned the opposition between mental labor and manual labor. [25]

Julia child's theory of three revolutions in the transition from prehistoric times to civilization is of great scientific value. However, for nearly half a century, academic circles have questioned his Neolithic Revolution. American scholar Bruwood even put forward the concept of "agricultural revolution" instead of "Neolithic revolution".

Second, the expansion of the study of ancient Egyptian civilization in the second half of the 20th century

With the progress of archaeology and history research, in the second half of the 20th century, people paid more attention to the study of Egyptian civilization, and a large number of works appeared. There are two main achievements and characteristics in the study of Egyptian civilization in the past half century: the first is to study the ancient Egyptian civilization in a broader field and re-examine its status. The so-called "broader field", that is, on the basis of the study of "Near East" civilization, extends to the new field of Mediterranean civilization research, connects Egypt with Greek and Roman civilizations, and evaluates ancient Egyptian civilization from the perspective of globalization. Second, while continuing to expand the new field of Egyptian civilization research, the special research on ancient Egyptian civilization has been deepened, and a number of special works on ancient Egyptian civilization research have appeared.

1. Research on Ancient Egyptian Civilization in the New Vision of Mediterranean Civilization

In the second half of the 20th century, ancient Egyptian civilization, as an important part of world civilization, was fully affirmed. In addition, "Mediterranean regional civilization" has attracted people's attention as a new research field.

"Mediterranean regional civilization" or "Mediterranean world history" includes some civilizations along the Mediterranean coast and islands such as Egypt, Mesopotamia, Asia, Crete, Greece and Rome. In this new vision, not only do individual studies on Egypt, Greece, Rome and other countries and regions, but more importantly, connect the eastern and western countries around the Mediterranean and study the civilized exchanges between countries in the region as a whole. This is a new topic in the study of civilization in the past half century. In this regard, two works are particularly noteworthy.

The first book, Egypt, Greece and Rome: Ancient Mediterranean Civilization by C Freeman, was published in 1996. Freeman emphasized that putting Egypt, Greece and Rome together embodies the connection among the three civilizations, which is a problem deeply discussed and studied by modern scholars and opens up new research fields. [26] The main features and arguments of this book are as follows:

First, connect Egypt with Greece and Rome, try to provide comments on the main events in each period, emphasize the development of culture and social history, and show the author's judgment basis. [27]

Second, the content is all-encompassing, covering not only the history of the three major civilizations, but also the "Near East", Idalarea, Crete and Persia, covering the economic, cultural, religious and historical background of various civilized regions.

Third, emphasize "Orientalization" and its great significance. If "Hellenization" is a traditional concept, the word "Orientalization" has received a wide response since it was put forward by O Murray in 1980. Freeman believes that the so-called "Orientalization" is the result of centuries-long communication between Greeks and oriental nations. These civilizations in the ancient "Near East" were neither isolated from each other nor from the outside world. [28] The author believes that Egypt's integration into the Mediterranean world has had a positive impact on Greece. For Greece, Egypt is the source of wisdom, and some people think that Egypt is the birthplace of their own civilization. [29] However, while emphasizing "Orientalization", the author did not ignore the localization of Greek culture and the mutual exchange between civilizations, and proposed that even powerful Rome was "impacted by the East". Rome not only brought back a lot of trophies of the Eastern War, but also brought back rich oriental culture. [30]

Fourthly, the history of ancient Egyptian civilization is described systematically and briefly. Of the 30 chapters in the book, ancient Egypt only accounts for 3 chapters. The author correctly affirmed that the Egyptians had established civilization before the emergence of a unified country in 3 100 BC. [3 1] He spoke highly of the Hyksos era and thought it was a period of "enriching Egyptian culture". [32] In summing up Egypt's achievements, the author said that although it is relatively independent, it will inevitably have some impact on the outside world. [33] It should be said that the author's exposition of Egyptian history is too brief and nothing new. But it is valuable to discuss Egypt as a part of Mediterranean civilization and Mediterranean civilization as a whole.

Fifth, the author limited the ancient Mediterranean civilization to 600 AD. The last two chapters of this book are entitled "The Birth of New Europe, 395-600" and "The Evolution of Byzantine Empire". Freeman pointed out that the traditional Roman Empire came to an end in the era of Diocletian, and this book continued the Roman history after Diocletian. The author adopts the theory of "post-classical era" and chooses 600 AD as the end date of the ancient world. The reason for this is also to show the influence of Rome's long-term rule for centuries on the western world. [34] Unfortunately, the author basically maintained the traditional practice of the lower limit of ancient Egyptian history, that is, Alexander conquered Egypt in 332 BC, and regarded the subsequent Egyptian history as a part of Greek and Roman history. This shows that the author has not regarded the ancient Egyptian civilization as an independent and complete system, so he has not unified the history of ancient Egypt with the new end time of the Roman Empire.

Another important work about Mediterranean civilization is bernal's Black Athena, which is a three-volume book with extensive and profound contents and is difficult to read. It was published in England from 65438 to 0987. You can see the connection between Egypt and Greece from the title of this book. The publication of this book has its special academic and social background. If in the first half of the 20th century, with the expansion of British imperialism, Smith's Egyptian "communication theory" was once popular, then in the second half of the 20th century, Afrocentrism appeared. This theory was first put forward by black Americans and African intellectuals. In the eyes of African centrists, ancient Egypt is a black African civilization, and Egypt is considered as the origin of many classical world cultural heritages. The publication of Black Athena immediately aroused people's interest and heated debate.

At the beginning of the book, the ancient model and Aryan model of Greek history research are explained, and then the author puts forward a "revised model". Black Athena focuses on the borrowing of Greek culture by ancient Egyptian and Levant cultures during 2100-100 BC. Regarding the influence of "Near East" on Aegean culture or Egyptian influence on Greece in different periods, bernal divided it into three periods and discussed them in detail:

1 The climax can be traced back to 2 1 century BC. During the period of the Middle Kingdom, Egypt had extensive contacts with foreign countries, including Crete and possibly the European continent. The image of the bull in Crete murals and the legend of the bull in Greek mythology are all related to the Egyptian god of cattle. [35] It is said that the ruins of Thebes, Greece are spire pyramids. The legend of the Sphinx in Thebes is also a well-known example of Egyptian influence. The sheep head god believed in the Aegean region is the Egyptian god Amon, because sheep is the image of Amon in Egyptian religion. [36] The legendary founder of Athens, Keke Ropes, was Egyptian. [37] All these can explain the influence of Egypt on Greek civilization. [38]

The second climax of ancient Egypt's influence on Greece was in the period of Hyksos. During this period, the influence of religion on Greece focused on the worship of Poseidon and other gods in Greek mythology. The author thinks that Hixos worships Seth in Egypt. In Egyptian mythology, Seth's role is equivalent to Poseidon, the Greek god, and Athena is the knight of Egypt. [39] It is generally believed that Greek was formed in17-16th century BC, and its Indo-European language family structure and basic vocabulary are related to non-Indo-European languages. The author thinks that most of the words come from Egyptians and Sisim, which coincides with the conquest of Egyptians and Sisim and their long-term rule in Greece. [40]

The third climax of Egypt's influence on Greece appeared in Egypt 18 dynasty in the middle of the 5th century BC. During this period, Egypt established a powerful empire in the "Near East" region and accepted tributes from the Aegean region. In the12nd century BC, Dorians invaded, and their successors, Greeks in classical Greek times, were considered to be descendants of Egyptians and Phoenicians. [4 1]

In addition, the author also mentioned the Egyptian temples and shrines established in Athens, Corinth and Thebes. The influence of Egyptian religion on Rome surpassed that of Greece. In Rome, Emperor Hadrian especially believed in the Egyptian God, and he even tried to turn his favorite Antioch God into an Egyptian God. [42]

Bernal searched a lot of data to prove that Greek and Roman civilization originated in Africa, especially in Egypt, at least that Greek and Roman civilization developed under the influence of Egypt. The information and related arguments he found have certain credibility, but some are far-fetched. Therefore, this book has also been criticized. In any case, this work has its important value: it provides another critical work for Eurocentrism; At the same time, it also opened people's eyes and reproduced the historical significance of oriental civilization, especially African civilization.

2. The study of ancient Egyptian civilization from the historical perspective of "globalization"

American scholar L Stavria Anoos pointed out: After 1945, the world entered a new stage of global integration. It is more and more urgent for history to reflect this new situation. [43] Geoffrey Barraclough, a famous British contemporary historian, emphasized in his book The Main Trends of Contemporary Historiography that "it is one of the main features to recognize the need to establish a global historical view (that is, to transcend the boundaries of countries and regions and understand the historical view of the whole world)". Balaklau's "global view of history" looks at world history from a global perspective. [45] It is not "fighting for national history", nor is it centered on western history, but "studying the differences between different countries, regions and civilizations and their interaction and influence." [46] Among the works on the view of globalization history, the most representative ones, and the only ones that Barakrau admired, are the works of Stavri and Anoos.

Stavri Anoos is a famous contemporary American historian. He has many works on global history, especially the general history of the world. At the beginning of the introduction, Stavri and Anoos indicated that the main feature of this kind of world history lies in "studying the history of the whole world, not the history of a certain country or region", and the global perspective is necessary because its important value lies in: "Confirming the history of the West and the history of non-West ... Only with a global perspective can we understand the degree of mutual influence of all ethnic groups in various times and the great role this interaction plays in determining the historical process of mankind." [47] Balaklau spoke highly of The General History of the World, and thought that this work could be comparable to Toynbee's historical research.

The general history of the world is divided into two volumes. In this paper, the ancient civilizations of the world before 1500 are briefly reviewed:

First, the earliest civilization was in Sumer, not in the Nile. Around 3500 BC, Sumer has completed the transition to civilization, while Egyptian civilization originated around 3000 BC. [48]

Second, the signs of civilization formation are city center, state power, tribute or tax, writing, social class or rank, huge buildings, various specialized arts and sciences, and so on. However, the author emphasizes that not all civilizations have all these characteristics. "Egyptian civilization has no cities like Mayan civilization." [49]

Third, ancient civilizations were Mesopotamia, Egypt, Crete, India and China. [50] However, it is puzzling that the author did not include the classical civilization of Greece and Rome into the ancient civilization type.

Fourth, the emergence of Egyptian civilization is largely due to Mesopotamia civilization. But the author also emphasizes that "the civilization created by the Egyptians is by no means a copy of Sumerian civilization, but has its own characteristics." [5 1]

Fifth, Egyptian civilization is stable and conservative, but it is by no means static. [52]

Sixth, in the Hellenistic era, the eastern and western civilizations "merged into one", "it broke the independent model of the east and the west formed in history", and people first thought of "treating the whole civilized world as a unit".

Stavri and Anoos's "globalization" view of history broke the traditional Western Europe-centered theory and gave people a brand-new vision. From the perspective of globalization, the author puts forward some important arguments on the study of ancient Egyptian civilization. However, the author is not an Egyptologist after all. He thinks that Egyptian civilization was formed in 3000 BC after Sumerian civilization, and there is no city in Egypt, which needs further discussion.

Before and after the publication of Anoos Stavri's A General History of the World, there are several similar histories of world civilization worth introducing. The History of World Civilization by Ralph and Burns was first published in 1955, and then revised one after another. The eighth edition was published in 199 1 year. The important value of the history of world civilization lies in the theory of "the whole world". The author believes that all ethnic groups are mutually beneficial in the process of civilization; They are increasingly interdependent in politics, economy and culture; In addition, they also have the responsibility to ensure the existence of human beings and all other creatures. [53] Although the author emphasizes that the original foundation of "civilization" is in Southwest Asia and North Africa, and mentions the influence of India and China, it is certainly unreasonable to call the invasion of China by imperialist powers "seeking business contacts". In addition, calling capitalism and fascism "totalitarianism" [55] is obviously confusing different ideologies. So, what is the status of ancient Egyptian civilization in the history of world civilization? The author calls Egypt and Sumerian civilizations the oldest civilizations. However, in the 5th and 8th editions, the chapters of Egypt and Sumer are arranged upside down. It can be seen that the author's later tendency is that Mesopotamia is "the first chapter of history". [56] It is worthy of recognition that the author spoke highly of Egyptian culture. When talking about the religious reform in Okhennathan, he cautiously said that it was "a monotheistic religion with reservations". [57]

Another important work from the perspective of globalization is A Toynbee's Man and Mother Earth: A Narrative World History, which was first published in 1976. This book gives a panoramic view of the history of world civilization from a global perspective, and describes the regional types, origins, development and evolution of human civilization, as well as the exchanges between civilizations. It can be said that this work is the embodiment of the "civilization theory" put forward by Toynbee in the book "Historical Research". In this book, Toynbee divides the whole world history into 82 chapters, including Sumerian civilization, Egyptian civilization, Olmec civilization, Syrian civilization, Greek civilization, Indian civilization, China civilization, Central American civilization and Andean civilization, Byzantine civilization and western civilization. Toynbee's "center of civilization" and his shift argument are very valuable. He pointed out that in the15th century, Western Europeans began to play a leading role in the center of civilization. In the 20th century, the leading role shifted to the United States, but in the next chapter on the history of civilization centers, the leading role may shift from the United States to East Asia. [58] Regarding the historical position of Egyptian civilization, the author regards it as "the second oldest regional civilization". The author thinks that Sumerian civilization influenced Pharaoh civilization, but points out the personality of Egyptian civilization itself. He said, "hieroglyphics are only the invention of the Egyptians themselves. Magnificent large stone buildings are also inventions of Egypt. The perfection of design and the precision of construction of Egyptian pyramids are unparalleled. [59] Toynbee discussed the relationship between Sumer, Syria and Palestine on the topic of "the relationship between regional civilizations". Here, he said, due to the invasion of barbarians (Hixos), "traditional introversion breeds militant xenophobia". As a result, the Egyptians expelled outsiders and returned to Palestine and Syria. [60] The so-called "xenophobia" of the Egyptians led to the war against West Asia, which is not accurate. We should explore its economic, political, historical and social background.

Third, the new achievements in the study of ancient Egyptian civilization in the second half of the 20th century.

In the second half of the 20th century, the research field of ancient Egyptian civilization not only expanded, but also had a more subtle and in-depth multi-angle discussion, and a number of monographs on early Egyptian civilization and systematic and comprehensive monographs on the history of Egyptian civilization appeared.

1. A unique monograph that studies early Egyptian civilization from many angles.

With the progress of archaeology, the achievements of early Egyptian civilization have attracted more and more attention in recent years. The two representative works can be regarded as monographs of early Egyptian civilization. The first book is Early Civilization: Ancient Egypt in Link by B.J. Trieger. This book was written by the author according to four lectures on "Ancient Egypt as an Early Civilization" given by/kloc-0 at American University in Cairo from June 6, 938 to April 0992. The purpose is to encourage Egyptian scientists to engage in comparative research between Egypt and other early civilizations, and at the same time restore the study of ancient Egypt to the level of comparative anthropology. The author makes a comparative study of six early civilizations, with the starting point of considering the similarities and differences between ancient Egypt and other early civilizations. [6 1]

When talking about several theories and doctrines of ancient Egyptian civilization research, the author first contacted anthropology. He believes that anthropologists have accepted cultural relativity to a great extent, but have long adhered to "historical particularism". At the beginning of the 20th century, F. boas once said, "Every culture is a unique product of its most accidental historical development." [62] In the 1960s, inspired by the trend of cultural ecology and the new century theory of social anthropology, anthropologists abandoned the traditional historical monism and began to pay more attention to the multicultural laws in human behavior. In this regard, it is worth mentioning the cultural ecologist J. Steward. His ecological theory emphasizes the study of * * * in multi-culture, but ignores the importance of characteristics. [63] In addition, the author also talked about the related theories of "process archaeology" and "post-process archaeology". These views have been greatly influenced by social anthropologists, but many archaeologists believe that the distinctions made by process archaeologists between science and history, evolution and history, social science and humanities are invalid and misleading, so they should be abandoned. We should follow the views of previous generations of scholars, such as Childe, Frank Ford and Wetford, who are interested in the differences and similarities of early civilizations. [64] The author further points out that a comparative study of the characteristics of early civilizations will help us better understand ancient Egypt, and at the same time, the uniqueness of ancient Egypt is equally important for understanding all other early civilizations. [65]

Good luck. Remember to give it to you. o(∩_∩)o