/kloc-in Europe in the late 0/9th century, romanticism has lost its edge, and realism is still the mainstay.
Flow, naturalism (under the influence of Darwin's theory of evolution and Comte's positivism, emphasizing the accurate and true description of life like a scientist), aestheticism (art for art's sake, emphasizing the pursuit of beauty, denying utilitarianism and artistic commercialization) and symbolism (poetry that emphasizes the expression of inner world and is divorced from reality) have appeared one after another. The intersection of the four literary schools formed the pluralistic trend of European literature in the late19th century. In the 20th century, realistic literature continued to be popular all over the world. War literature and anti-fascist literature have become important themes (mainly due to World War I and World War II), and because of the complexity of philosophical thinking, they are somewhat different from traditional realism.
Late symbolism is a modernist literary school that prevailed in the west in the 1920s and 1940s, and later formed a trend of modernist poetry. It advocates transcending personal feelings and paying attention to the transformation and utilization of tradition. Just like Ye Zhi in England and Valery in France.
Expressionism is a modernist school of literature that prevailed in German-speaking countries and the United States in the 1920s and 1930s. Distortion, distortion, exaggeration and absurdity are often used to pursue strong effects, such as the Ghost Sonata by Swedish writer Strindberg and the Metamorphosis by German writer Kafka.
In addition, the stream-of-consciousness novel is also a modernist literary genre that was popular in Europe and America from 19 15 to 1940, and later exerted a wide influence on literature and art. This genre is often mixed with reality and fantasy, and the present, the past and the future are reversed. The French writer Proust's Memories of Time Past is a masterpiece.
1. Ancient Greece: Mycenae civilization in Crete provided rich and colorful materials for later Greek myths and epics.
"Homeric Age" (1 1 century-9th century BC): It is famous for its "Homeric Epic". Mainly myths and epics.
"Antique Age" (8th century BC-6th century BC): The main achievements of literature are lyric poems and fables. Lyrics can be divided into flute songs and piano songs. Aesop's fable came into being at this time.
"Classical Age" (5th century BC-mid 4th century BC): the most
Among them, the classical tragedies, comedies and literary theories represented by Plato and Aristotle are prominent.
"Hellenistic era" (late 4th century BC-middle 2nd century BC): only Minand's new comedies and Tektronix's pastoral poems.
2. Ancient Rome: In the early days of Rome, drama was the main achievement. The first two kinds of folk dramas, Atra comedy and parody, were later influenced by Greek new dramas and developed their own dramas. Representative writers are Plautus and Terence.
The middle period and the end of the era are mainly poetry and prose. Important writers are Cicero, Lucretius and Catullus.
In the later period, due to the slow development of domestic crisis literature, there are mainly Seneca's tragedy, Matthias' satirical poems and Aplus' novel Metamorphosis.
3. As far as the development of European medieval literature is concerned, it is mainly religious literature and secular literature, and Christian literature is also the mainstream literature in medieval Europe. Christian literature at this time was basically literature with the Bible as its main theme.
4. French Christian literature prevailed in the Middle Ages, such as Ode to Eulali Maiden in the 9th century, The Story of Saint Lery in 10 century and Passion in10 century. At that time, it was characterized by the heyday of Romanesque art, the germination of Gothic art, the popularization of popular poetry and the reappearance of Latin ancient books.
French medieval epics achieved the greatest success, such as Song of Roland. After the emergence of chivalry in the Middle Ages, chivalry lyrics were produced in France, mainly including short songs, sentimental poems, pastoral songs, serenades and dawn songs. Narrative poems are the highest in civic literature, and their main works include The Legend of Lena Fox and The Legend of French Roses.
/kloc-in the second half of the 0/7th century, classicism became the mainstream of French literature. Its main characteristics are serving the kingship, advocating rationality, imitating ancient classics and paying attention to the standardization of artistic forms. The representative is Moliere's The Hypocrite.
/kloc-French literature in the 0/8th century is divided into three schools: aristocratic literature, bourgeois reality exposure literature and bourgeois enlightenment literature. Voltaire, Montesquieu, Diderot and Rousseau are the representative writers of this period.
/kloc-the third wave of romanticism in the 0/9th century took place in France, headed by Hugo.
Red and Black written by Stendhal 1830 marked the birth of critical realism, which further established its position as the mainstream literature in the19th century. Balzac's human comedy is the pinnacle. And Carmen of Merimi. Later, Flaubert and Francois.
Naturalism is an important literary school in the French literary world from 1960s to 1990s. Symbolism was also popular in the later period. For example, Baudelaire's Flowers of Evil.
Paris commune literature is a concentrated expression of European proletarian literary achievements in the late19th century, such as The Internationale.
The representative of French realism in the 20th century is romain rolland's john christopher.
The most outstanding achievement of Italy in the Middle Ages was Dante's Divine Comedy. "Humanism" flourished during the Renaissance. It first originated in Italy. There are mainly Petrarch's Collection of Songs, Boccaccio's decameron and rabelais's Biography of Giants, all of which resist the irrationality of theological system from the perspective of personal feelings and passions. As a pioneer of humanism, Italian literature also showed the characteristics of describing the feelings and styles of giants in the16th century.
/kloc-A unique impromptu comedy was popular in Italy in the middle of 0/8th century.
6. During the English Renaissance, there was a tendency to create humanism, represented by Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. The greatest playwright and poet in this period is Shakespeare. His early works also described secular life and erotic world, and later inherited and developed the theme of the times, showing the elegance of giants.
Influenced by the development of natural science, English literature in the17th century formed its own philosophical system, and influenced by humanistic literature, baroque literature (illusory in content and grandiose in form) and classical literature, which produced bourgeois revolutionary literature.
/kloc-the main contribution of English literature in the 0/8th century is realistic novels, which are influenced by materialism and inherit and develop the tradition of vagrant novels. Such as Defoe's Robinson Crusoe and Swift's Gulliver's Travels. /kloc-In the late 8th century, a school of sentimental literature appeared in Britain, which spread all over Europe.
Romanticism originated in Britain and Germany in the19th century. Burns and Blake were pioneers. Later, Wordsworth, Coleridge and other lake poets appeared. There are lyric poets Keats, Byron and historical novelist Scott.
65438+A number of critical realist writers, represented by Dickens, Thackeray and Charlotte Brontexq, appeared in the Victorian Literature Period in Britain from 1930s to 1970s. Later, there were playwrights such as Bernard Shaw and Hardy.
/kloc-In the late 20th century, British aestheticism prevailed, with Oscar Wilde as the main representative.
Lawrence's Rainbow and Lady Chatterley's Lover are the representatives of British realistic literature in the 20th century. Mao Mu's The Moon and Sixpence. Imagist poetry is the main force of symbolism in late England, represented by Eliot (The Waste Land) and Joyce (Ulysses).
7. The Spanish Renaissance works lack typicality. Knight novels prevailed in the Middle Ages until16th century. Later, "vagrant novels" appeared. Cervantes' Don Quixote is the first realistic novel in the European Renaissance.
8. Rococo literature was once popular in Germany, but its main achievement was enlightenment literature. In the later period of the Enlightenment, German national literature was brilliant, and Lessing was the founder. Lessing praised Aesop's fables and devoted his life to drama.
/kloc-Schiller, a famous German poet in the 0/8th century, pushed German classical literature to its peak. Goethe laid the foundation of German bourgeois classical literature.
/kloc-Romanticism in the 0/9th century originated in Germany and Britain. Heine was an important poet in this period. After 1930s, romanticism was replaced by democratic literature with strong anti-feudal tendency. Then there is critical realism literature.
The representative writers of German realistic literature in the 20th century are Thomas Mann's Budenbrook and Magic Mountain. Henrik Mann's Imperial Trilogy.
German expressionist drama prevailed in the first half of the 20th century.
9. Russia: Due to long-term foreign aggression, Russia is geographically isolated from Western Europe and culturally isolated. /kloc-Russian literature in the 0/8th century was still in the transitional period of ancient literature, until French classicism penetrated into Russia in the 1920s and 1950s. /kloc-sentimentalism literature also appeared in Russia in the second half of the 0/8th century.
/kloc-romanticism prevailed in Russia and eastern Europe in the first half of the 0/9th century. Pushkin is the first national poet and great writer in his literary history.
In 1930s, Russia made great achievements in critical realism. For example, Nikolai Gogol's Imperial Envoy and Dead Soul. Notes of Turgenev and Hunter. From 1970s to 1990s, Tolstoy's "most sober realism" and Dostoevsky's "illusory realism" and Chekhov's "daily life realism" appeared.
From 65438 to 1990, Russian symbolism, "Akmei School", futurism and naturalism writers appeared one after another, which was called the "Silver Age" of Russia.
10. America: Romantic literature spread to the United States in the early 19 century, creating a number of writers such as Whitman, Melville and Hawthorne. Edgar allan poe's Leaves of Grass is a masterpiece of American free poetry.
Critical realism is the mainstream of American literature from the end of 19 to the beginning of the 20th century. O Henry's The Gift of the Maggie, The Last Leaf of the Rattan, Mark Twain's The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.
/kloc-at the end of 0/9, the United States began to pursue modernism. Mainly Dickinson and Stan. There was Faulkner's The Sound and the Fury in the 1930s.
The representatives of American realistic literature in the 20th century are Dreiser (American tragedy) and Hemingway (the old man and the sea). After World War I, a lost generation of writers also appeared in the United States.
11.65438+In the 1970s and 1980s, critical realism made great progress in countries in Northeast Europe, such as Andersen in Denmark and Ibsen in Norway. Due to the world-renowned great writers such as Andersen, Ibsen and Strindberg, Nordic literature in the19th century has an important position in the history of western literature. The greatest achievement is Ibsen's A Doll's House. He wrote nine plays about social problems, that is, realistic plays that reveal major hot issues in real society.
12. Russian literature: Russian literature in the 20th century can be divided into "domestic Russian literature" and "foreign Russian literature" with the October Revolution as the boundary. Writers of various schools in China are mixed, mainly because of the rise of left-wing thought. In the early 1950s, the thawing of ehrenburg marked the popularity of Russian "unfreeze literature", and the rise of "Trench Truth" marked its profound changes. In the middle and late 1980s, it was "returning to literature", which refers to the return of works that were banned from publication in the 1920s and 1980s to domestic readers. In the 1980s, "another literature" appeared (mainly describing trivial matters of life and the psychological state of small people, mainly drawing lessons from the western stream of consciousness. )。
Realism is the most important, successful and influential literary school in all Russian and Soviet literature in the 20th century. Gorky and sholokhov are his representative writers.
13. India: The earliest documents in India are four Vedas, and Rigveda is the earliest. This period is the period of Vedic literature. Vedic literature is followed by epic literature. Ramayana and Mahabharata are both called India's two great epics. Vedic literature represents religious literature and epic represents secular rap literature.
From 1 century to19th century, India experienced two stages: classical Sanskrit literature and pious literature (because of the introduction of Islam). Then there is the local language and literature. The representative of ancient Indian literature is Sagondaro written by Kali Dhara.
Tagore is a representative figure of modern Indian literature.
14. Japan: The formation of Japanese literature began in ancient times. Including Yamato, Feiniao, Nara and Heian periods from the 4th century to the end of 12.
The earliest written documents in Japan appeared in the Nara period, and the representative works include Historical Records, Japanese Secretary (considered to imitate China's Hanshu and Houhanshu) and Ye Wan Collection.
The literature of heian period and China continued to develop, with the highest achievements in prose, such as Pillow Grass written by Qing Dynasty. At this time, there also appeared "story literature", one is the story of the song with the harmony song as the core, represented by the story of Yi Shi, and the other is the legendary story represented by the story of bamboo.
Japanese medieval literature is the mature period of Japanese literature. Including Kamakura, Muromachi and Edo. Because of the turmoil in this period, military discipline stories came into being, and in drama, energy strategy also came into being. There is no drama in Japan, but it was influenced by China's talk in March. As far as drama is concerned, Jing Liuli and Kabuki are important dramas in the Edo period. Pure glass is a puppet show. Nuo He is the representative of poetry in the Edo period, and is called "drama". Murasaki shikibu's Tale of Genji is a representative of Japanese female literature in heian period.
Japan produced an anti-naturalistic trend of thought during the Taisho period, and in the later period, it was mainly influenced by European and American modernism, resulting in new sensationalism and rationalism. The new sensation school has a great influence, and the representatives are Yasunari Kawabata and Yoshiichi Yokomitsu.
15. China: The history of China literature is divided into three ancient and seven sections.
Ancient times: pre-Qin, Qin and Han dynasties
Pre-Qin period: literary creation experienced the process from group to individual; On the one hand, literary form is a combination of literature, history and philosophy, on the other hand, poetry, music and dance.
Qin and Han dynasties: the rise of Han Yuefu, brewing five or seven words.
Middle Ages: Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties, Song and Yuan Dynasties to the middle of Ming Dynasty.
1. Poetry, Ci and Qu reached their peak in the Tang, Song and Yuan Dynasties respectively.
2. Classical Chinese novels were formed in the early Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties and matured in the Tang Dynasty. Vernacular short stories flourished in the Song and Yuan Dynasties, and Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Water Margin appeared in the late Yuan and early Ming Dynasties.
Third, from Wei and Jin Dynasties to the middle Tang Dynasty, five-character ancient poems flourished and five-character modern poems rose. Parallel prose and parallel prose appeared.
Fourth, the ci poetry flourished in the middle Tang Dynasty, and the novel was "said" from the legend of the Tang Dynasty to the Song Dynasty.
5. From Yuan Dynasty to the middle of Ming Dynasty, narrative literature dominated, represented by traditional Chinese opera and Sanqu.
Paleogene: Jiajing of Ming Dynasty to May 4th Movement.
The rise of vernacular novels includes Wu Cheng'en's Scholars, The Journey to the West's and Wu's. Narrative literature has achieved unprecedented development.