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three religions and nine schools of thought
Ancient times refers to Confucianism and Taoism, and Buddhism is the "three religions"; Confucianism, Taoism, ink, law, name, miscellaneous, agriculture, yin and yang, vertical and horizontal are the "nine streams." Later, it generally refers to various schools of religious and academic circles.
Confucianism, also known as Confucianism, is listed as one of the "nine streams". Founded by Confucius, it was regarded as authentic by the feudal ruling class after the Han Dynasty.
Confucius (55 BC/kloc-0 BC/-479 BC) was born in the state of Lu (now Qufu South, Shandong Province), ranking second. A great thinker, politician and educator in the late Spring and Autumn Period. He was an aristocrat in the Song Dynasty, and moved to Shandong when he respected his ancestors. His father Liang Gan is a doctor in Lu. Confucius said: "I am cheap because I am few, so I can despise it." Become a Confucian scholar in his early years (as a gift from the nobility, as a drummer, etc.). ), but also a Commissioner (in charge of grain and grass) and a farmland officer (in charge of animal husbandry). When I was young, I was famous for knowing "courtesy". According to legend, I once asked Lao Dan (Lao Zi) about manners. As an official, he went to Luhe and Sikou and served as a deputy, but for a short time. According to legend, in the fourteenth year of Duke Ding of Lu, when Confucius was a rogue, Shao Zhengmao was punished with five evils (against his will, perseverance, disobedience to sound, ignorance of ugliness, obedience to arrogance). After traveling around the world, he was not taken seriously. He called his disciples to give lectures, including 3000 disciples and 72 celebrities. In his later years, he deleted poetry books, revised the Spring and Autumn Period, fixed rites and music, and established a Confucian system. Confucius' thoughts, words and deeds are kept in the Analects of Confucius recorded and sorted out by his disciples.
The main idea and feature of Confucianism is "ancestors describe Yao and Shun, chart (imitate) civil and military, self-denial and self-respect". Advocating "rites and music", advocating "benevolence and righteousness", starting from "correcting the name", emphasizing "respecting the grace of the family and practicing the golden mean". Politically, it advocates "rule by virtue" and "benevolent government" and attaches importance to "etiquette and righteousness" education; A policy of combining morality with punishment to punish and supplement morality. During the Warring States period, Confucianism was divided into eight factions, with Mencius and Xunzi as the representatives of the two factions having the greatest influence. Mencius, in particular, is regarded as the direct biography of Confucius and the authentic Confucianism after the Song Dynasty. Although Confucianism was called a famous school in the pre-Qin period, it was not higher than other schools. Since Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty "ousted a hundred schools of thought and respected Confucianism alone", it has been regarded as the ruling ideology by the feudal ruling class in the feudal society for more than 2,000 years (except for a very short period) and is in an authentic position; The struggle between philosophical materialism and idealism is carried out within Confucianism. From Dong Zhongshu and Tang Hanyu in the Western Han Dynasty, to Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi in the Northern Song Dynasty, to Zhu in the Southern Song Dynasty, and then to Lu Jiuyuan and Wang Shouren in the Ming Dynasty, Mencius' idealism legend was mainly inherited and developed. Wang Chong in the Eastern Han Dynasty, Liu Zongyuan in the Tang Dynasty, Liu Yuxi and Zhang Zai in the Northern Song Dynasty, Chen Liang in the Southern Song Dynasty, Ye Shi and Wang Tingxiang in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, Wang Fuzhi (Chuanshan) in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, Qing Zaizhen and others mainly inherited and developed Xunzi's materialism tradition, while the two wings took what they needed from Confucius and respected Confucius as a saint. Confucianism ruled China for more than two years, which is the basic form and main content of China's national culture construction. There are dross in it, and it also contains the excellent tradition and cultural heritage of the Chinese nation, which needs to be divided into two parts and critically inherited.
Taoism: Also known as Taoism, its school was founded by Laozi, and its disciples have been tracing its academic origin back to the Yellow Emperor, so Taoism is also known as "the skill of Huang Lao".
Laozi, also known as Lao Dan, surnamed Li Minger and Bo Yang, was a philosopher at the end of the Spring and Autumn Period and was born in Qurenli, Guxian County, Li Xiang (now Lu Yidong, Henan Province). I am a historian of the Zhou Dynasty, managing the royal collection. According to legend, Tao Te Ching (also known as Laozi) was written by Laozi, with a total of 8 1 chapter and 5000 words.
The name of Taoism, first seen in the Western Han Dynasty, was called a Taoist in Sima Tan's Essentials of Six Classics. Han Shu's literature and art is called Taoism, which is classified as "Nine Streams". One. Later, there was Yang Zhu's "for me" theory, which advocated that "the truth of nature should be preserved, not for the complexity of things" (on Huai Nan Zi). Later, around the same time as Zhuangzi, several schools of Taoism appeared under the Qi Dynasty: Song Chan and the School of Harmony advocated "shallow lust" and "no attacking sleeping soldiers"; There are vernon and Shinto schools that advocate "abandoning knowledge for yourself" and "taking everything as the head"; There is a school of Guanyin who advocates "living alone with the gods" (according to Zhuangzi Tianxia)
Taoism reached its peak through Zhuangzi's efforts, and stood in opposition with Confucianism and Mohism. Taoism advocates "heaven is natural and inaction", denies that ghosts and gods dominate everything, and thinks that "Taoism is natural" and "Tao" means "nothing", which has no image and is intangible. Everything in the world is born, and everything in the universe originates from Tao. Tao is the master of the world and the general source of all things in the universe. His political ideal is "a small country with few people" and "governing by doing nothing", and he hopes that society will return to its original state. This idea is negative and reactionary. Taoism has a profound understanding of the contradiction of things and its transformation. It believes that contradictions are interdependent, and it sees that contradictions will turn into opposites. "The movement of Tao is contrary", so it is simple dialectical thought to say that "disaster lies, happiness lies, and disaster lies"; But he ignored the role of struggle in transformation. The school of Huang Lao, which appeared in the middle of the Warring States Period, absorbed Lao Zi's thought of "emptiness and quietness" and reformed it. Under the guidance of the rulers in the early Han Dynasty, the policy of "letting things go smoothly" was implemented and achieved certain results. Metaphysics in Wei and Jin dynasties advocated Zhuang and Lao, interpreted the classics with Taoism, and promoted the integration of Confucianism and Taoism. Although the post-Taoist thought once again dominates, it has always been regarded as a supplement to Confucianism by the rulers. Taoism's naturalistic view of heaven and dialectics contain reasonable factors, which have exerted a wide and profound influence on the history of China's philosophical thought.
Buddhism; Also known as Buddhism, together with Christianity and Islam, it is called the three major religions in the world.
Buddhism originated in India. According to legend, it was built by Sakyamuni Siddhartha Gautama, son of Surabaya King in ancient India (now Nepal) from the 6th century BC to the 5th century BC. Later, Buddhists called him Sakyamuni (meaning the sage of Sakyamuni). At the age of 29, he felt bitter about birth, illness and death, and was dissatisfied with the caste system of Brahmanism and the privileged position of priests at that time, which hindered the social and economic development. He believes that the purpose of life is to get rid of everything, resolutely abandon the royal life and become a monk. Six years later, he finally realized the truth.
Buddhism advocates equality, perfection, abstinence, penance, birth and nirvana (meaning to ascend to the most perfect and happy spiritual realm after death). In order to restrain his intention to pursue life, he regarded everything in the world as "empty", but thought that the soul of the deceased was reincarnated as a person, an animal or a plant according to his behavior in his previous life. When "good karma" exceeds "bad karma", there will be a good reincarnation, and superstitious ideas such as hell reincarnation and karma will be vigorously promoted, thus denying the fundamental transformation of society. Therefore, it is proposed that we should not fight against violence, obliterate the class opposition in class society, cover up the root of the suffering of the working people, and let the working people settle in poverty and powerlessness to benefit the ruling class.
Buddhism was declared as the state religion in the era of Asoka in ancient India (272 BC-232 BC). Later, in the process of its own development, it was divided into Hinayana (for early Buddhism) and Mahayana (for later new sects). Hinayana emphasizes ethical teachings, pursues "self-liberation" and does not worship idols. I think that as long as I practice, I can enter nirvana, but not everyone can become a Buddha. Mahayana worships idols and advocates "saving all beings". It is believed that everyone can become a Buddha as long as they sincerely believe and practice.
Buddhism was introduced to China around the first year of mourning for Emperor Yuanshou in the Western Han Dynasty (BC), and it was considered as a magic of immortality. But generally speaking, the introduction of Buddhist scriptures into China was in the 10th year of Yongping in the Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 67), which was the official start of Buddhism in China. Since then, Buddhist teachings have gradually combined with China's traditional ethics and religious concepts. Buddhism in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties was closely related to metaphysics, which spread widely in China and reached its peak in Sui and Tang Dynasties. After the Song Dynasty, some teachings of Buddhism were absorbed by Confucianism and gradually declined. On the one hand, Buddhism was used by the feudal ruling class in China and became a tool to enslave the people. On the other hand, it promoted the cultural exchange between China and China, absorbed the knowledge of Indian philosophy, literature, art, architecture and sculpture, enriched the treasure house of Indian culture, and became an important part of China's philosophy.
Mohist school: the school founded for Mozi, the history of Han Dynasty and the annals of arts and literature, is listed as one of the nine schools.
Mozi, whose name is Zhai (468- 376 BC), was a thinker, politician and Song poet in the early Warring States period. He used to be a doctor in Song State. He lived in Song State for a long time, and then he lived in Lu State. He once studied Confucianism, but because he was dissatisfied with the cumbersome "rites" of Confucianism, he established a new theory and gathered people to give lectures, which became the main opposition of Confucianism at that time. Mozi called himself a "bitch", worked as a carpenter, was a manual worker, and had high technical attainments. Later, he became a scholar and was proficient in historical and cultural classics at that time.
Mohist school advocates universal love, mutual non-aggression, Shang Xian, Shang Tong, abstinence, ambition, ignorance and destiny. People who believe in Mozi's theory are called "Mohists". They are a well-organized and disciplined social group. The positions of this group are called "Giants" and "Giants", which were handed down to the sages he considered by the former "Giants", and all "Mohists" obey the command of the "Giants". They also have certain laws and regulations, "the law of ink, the murderer dies, the injured person is punished" ("Lv Chunqiu"). Their life is extremely hard, but they are very brave. "Go to the fire and jump the blade, and die immediately. After Mozi's death, Mohism was divided into three schools: Xiangrichi, Xiangfu and Deng Ling. In the later period, Mohism abandoned the religious superstitions such as "God's Will" and "Ming Ghost" in Mozi's theory, made valuable discussions on geometry, optics and mechanics in natural science, made materialistic analysis on the relationship between name and reality, emotion and thought, and made great achievements in ancient logic and epistemology.
Mohism had a great influence at that time, and it was also called a prominent school with Confucianism, and gradually declined after Qin and Han Dynasties. In the Western Jin Dynasty, Lu Sheng annotated the debate of Mohism and tried to revitalize Mohism. Because there is no successor, it is almost extinct. It was not until the middle of Qing Dynasty that Mozi's works attracted the attention of scholars. There are 53 books in Mozi, most of which are reliable materials for studying Mozi.
Legalist: During the Warring States Period, the school of thought advocating the rule of law, Hanshu Yiwenzhi, was listed as one of the "nine streams". The main representative of Legalism is Han Fei (280-233 BC), a thinker and materialist atheist at the end of the Warring States Period.
Han Fei was born in Korea, a noble son, stuttering, good at writing books and not good at words. Yu Xunzi and Li Si. It was suggested that the king of South Korea should reform his country to make it stronger, but it was not adopted. His thoughts were valued by the government of Qin Dynasty (Qin Shihuang) and invited to the State of Qin. Soon after, Yao Jia and Li Si were imprisoned and forced to commit suicide. He integrated Shang Yang's "Fa", Shen Buhai's "Shu" and Shen Dao's "Shi" and established a complete theoretical system of rule of law.
Legalist thought advocates abolishing minefields economically, establishing and consolidating feudal private ownership of land, emphasizing agriculture and restraining commerce, and rewarding agricultural wars. Politically, it advocates abolishing the "enfeoffment system", establishing "counties", establishing a centralized monarchy, unifying the whole country, and emphasizing the "sanctity" of monarchy. In order to attack the old aristocratic forces at that time, he put forward the ideas of "law is not expensive", "punishment is inevitable, and goodness cannot be left behind" (the golden mean), holding that "utility" is the standard of "good and evil", advocating severe punishment and heavy reward, and advocating that "prime ministers must start from the state department and brave men must start from the pawn" in employing people; In ideological education, it advocates abandoning the Confucian theory of "benevolence and righteousness" and "teaching by law and taking officials as teachers". It emphasizes the development and changes of history, advocates that "we should not forget the past by surprise, so we should be prepared", advocates that "law is king" and admits that today is better than the past. Epistemologically, it pays attention to truth, "judging right and wrong by name, arguing by words", and the objective criterion for testing words and deeds is "utility".
Legalists' political opinions were mostly practical and were adopted by many vassal States at that time. Qin used Han Fei's theory and played an important role in unifying the six countries. Legalists, on the other hand, regard "evil nature" as the theoretical basis of their rule of law, and believe that there is no "person who is self-righteous", so "replacing morality with law" includes the means of strictly administering the people and brutally suppressing them, and ruling by severe punishment and strict law. Although the feudal rule after the Western Han Dynasty "ousted a hundred schools of thought and respected Confucianism alone", it still adopted the method of "learning from Confucianism outside and learning from law inside", and Confucianism and law were developed simultaneously. The main works of the Legalists are The Book of Shang Jun and Everything goes wrong.
Master: a school of thought centered on the debate between name and reality in the Warring States period. The History of Han Literature and Art is listed as one of the "Nine Streams". In the Warring States period, they were called "famous soldiers" and "debaters", and in the Western Han Dynasty, they were called famous soldiers. Their main representatives are Gong Sunlong and Hui Shi.
GongSunLong (from 325 BC to 3 15 BC, died in the first 250 years), an objective materialist and logician, was born in Zhao. He advised the prince to stop the soldiers, negotiated with Zhao Haoqi Huiwen to stop the soldiers, and worked as a public guest in Ping Yuanjun.
Hui Shi (370 BC-3 BC18) was one of the famous representatives of the ideological trend of debate in the Warring States Period, a logician and a native of the Song Dynasty. He used to be Wei Xiang. He was in power in Wei for 15 or 16 years, and his political status was very high. Zhuangzi said that "Hui Shi has many books and five cars", which shows that he is a very learned man.
Famous scholars are unique in the ideological trend of name debate, and their investigations are meticulous. They advocate that "controlling names is responsible without losing participation in martial arts." Emphasize that names and facts must be completely consistent, and that "reality" is correct and "name" is also correct. His view is often contrary to the popular view at that time, "taking right as wrong and wrong as right." Hui Shi put forward "contract difference", starting from the relativity of things' similarities and differences, and came to the conclusion that there is no essential difference between things, "under heaven and earth, mountains and rivers are flat, and heaven and earth are integrated". Gong Sunlong put forward "separation of firmness and whiteness", thinking that firmness and whiteness of stone are separated, and "whiteness" is visible but not "firmness"; The sense of touch can be "firm" but not "white", which absolutes the different functions of the senses, exaggerates individuality and denies commonness. When commenting on famous artists, Xunzi affirmed that "everything happens for a reason, and what he said is reasonable"; On the other hand, it is pointed out that they "like to hold strange theories and play with strange words" (sophistry) The arguments and theories of famous scholars were criticized and developed by Mohism in the later period, which contributed to the development of China's ancient logic thought. Except for the existing part of Gongsun Zilong, all other works have been lost.
Miscellaneous School: From the end of the Warring States Period to the beginning of the Han Dynasty, hundred schools of thought's theory was integrated, and the history of Chinese art and literature was listed as one of the nine schools. It is called "the method of combining Mohism and Confucianism", which is the product of political unity and academic integration at that time. The main representative of sages is Lv Buwei.
Lv Buwei (? -235 BC) Qin Xiang in the Warring States Period. Ben was dajia, the richest man in Yangzhai (now Yuxian County, Henan Province). When Qin Gongzi made people hold Zhao hostage, he thought that "strange goods can live in" and took his daughter as an activity to make people return to the throne, that is, Qin Zhuang Wang Xiang, who served as the prime minister of the country, sealed his heart and ate 100,000 households in Luoyang, with three diners and 10,000 families. Qin Wangzheng (Qin Shihuang) ascended the throne at a young age and succeeded to rule the country, which is called "Guanzhong"; After Qin was in power, he was dismissed from office and moved to Shu county, fearing to quench his thirst by drinking poison.
The sage claimed to "keep the finger of a corner without following the trace" ("A Brief Introduction to Huainanzi"), taking the strengths of each family and abandoning its shortcomings. Although it combines Confucianism and Mohism, it is said by name; But deeply influenced by Taoism. "It gets the true biography of Taoism, and it gets more income from Taoism than other sects, so it is just a miscellaneous faction." There are 20 miscellaneous Confucian works in Hanshu Yiwenzhi, with 403 articles, many of which are lost today. Lu's Spring and Autumn Annals was written by Premier Qin, who invited many tourists. Lie Hong in Huainan was compiled for the guests of Liu An, the king of Huainan in the Western Han Dynasty, and it is the representative work of this school.
Farmhouse: The academic school Hanshu Yiwenzhi, which reflects the agricultural production and farmers' thoughts in the Warring States Period, is listed as one of the nine streams. Their main representative is Xu Xing.
Xu Xing: During the Warring States Period, there were dozens of students in Chu State. They all wear coarse clothes, play straw sandals and weave mats to make a living. Political thought advocates that "the holy people should cultivate and eat, and be autonomous." That is, everyone must work, although the king is no exception. It reflects an ideal of farmers in ancient society (see Mencius on Teng Wengong). The farmer also summed up the technical experience of agricultural production. For example, Guan Zi's Yuan Di, Lu's Spring and Autumn Annals, Shang Nong, Man and Land, Border Map and Historical Records are all important works on agricultural science in the pre-Qin period.
Yin-yang school: a school that advocated the theory of Yin-yang and Five Elements during the Warring States Period. The History of Han Literature and Art is listed as one of the "Nine Streams". Its main representative is Zou Yan.
Zou Yan (305 BC-240 BC) was a native of Qi. He once wrote a book under Miracle and said something about chaos. I have been to Zhao, and I am arguing with GongSunLong that "a white horse is not a horse". Finally, he went to Yan State to be an official and was "rewarded" by the governors. The knowledgeable "Hong Daguo" is known as "talking about heaven and talking about Yan". This school was transformed from an ancient wizard who was engaged in mourning activities. Zou Yan established the "General Theory of Five Virtues" by using the theory that the five elements are mutually generated, and thought that "the five virtues are transformed, and each should be governed appropriately". Combining the concept of Yin and Yang and the concept of five elements that first appeared in Zhouyi in ancient times, this paper advocates the theory of Yin and Yang and five elements to explain the reasons for the rise and fall of dynasties in history and provide theoretical basis for the establishment of emerging dynasties. With the prevalence of the Five Elements, it was used by some idealistic philosophers and endowed with a strong mysticism, which became one of the main sources of the theory of fiber and weft in Han Dynasty. But there are also some simple materialistic thoughts and simple dialectical thoughts in Yin-Yang and Five Elements. It played a great role in ancient astronomy and almanac in China, especially in the development and systematization of China's medical theory. Its reasonable factors have been inherited by some materialist philosophers. As the first chapter of the twelve seasons, The Book of Rites and the Moon Order, written in the Warring States Period, records the twelve months of the summer calendar and related things on a monthly basis, summarizes various things in the five-element system, expounds the relationship between the operation of the four seasons and crop growth, and formulates measures for production activities. Some people think it is a work of yin and yang. During the Qin and Han Dynasties, this school gradually merged with Confucianism.
Military strategist: A group of advisers (lobbyists) who specialized in diplomatic activities during the Warring States period listed Hanshu Yiwenzhi as one of the "nine streams". Their main representatives are Su Qin and Zhang Yi.
The main representative of "Zonghe" is Su Qin: Zi ji zi (344 BC-284 BC), a native of Luoyang in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (now Luoyang East, Henan Province) during the Warring States Period. Advocate "vertical integration" and unite the six countries to reject Qin. Once a confidant, he was ordered to join Qi in anti-espionage activities, making Qi "Song in the west and Chu (tired) in the south" to weaken Qi and prevent Qi from seeking Yan. When I first entered the State of Qi, I won the trust of the King of Qi. In the 19th year of Qin Zhao Haoqi (288 BC), he claimed to be the Western Emperor; King Qiao Qimin is also known as the Eastern Emperor. He persuaded the King of Qi to abolish the emperor's name, and attacked Qin together with Li Dui, the monarch of Zhao Fengyang, forcing the King of Qin to abolish the emperor's name, and returning part of the land of Wei and Han, which was zoned by Zhao to help the king attack and destroy the Song State. Hou Yan attacked soldiers from Le Yi and five countries on a large scale, and his anti-war activities were exposed and he was killed by the King of Qi. (History and Literature of Han Art) Thirty-one pieces of Perilla by strategists are lost today. Sixteen letters and lobbying of Su Qin are preserved in the silk book Letters of Warring States unearthed from Mawangdui Han Tomb, which is different from the records in Historical Records and Biography of Su Qin.
The main representative of "Lian Heng" is Yi Cheung (? -3 10 BC) descendants of Wei nobles in the Warring States period. Qin Huiwen entered Qin in the ninth year (329 BC) and became prime minister the following year. He became a loyal monarch. When he was in power, he forced Wei Huiwang to give fifteen counties in the county to Qin, and said that Hui Wenjun was king and promoted the "Lian Heng" strategy. He advocated that the six countries should enfeoffment Qin, disintegrate the Qi-Chu alliance and send troops to seize the land of Chu and Hanzhong. The King of Qin spoke to Yuan Geng for nine years (3 16 BC). Sima Cuo led an army to attack and destroy Shu, Ju and Ba. After that, he once entered Wei Wei, was driven back, and soon died. (History of Han, Art and Literature) Ten articles by strategists have been lost.