/kloc-the bourgeois revolution broke out in Britain in the 0 th and 7 th centuries, which opened up new prospects for educational reform and development, but the restoration of Stuart dynasty ruthlessly destroyed people's yearning for educational reform in the Puritan revolutionary era. The restoration of the dynasty deprived non-Catholics of the right to education, which led to the stagnation of British education development in the whole18th century. The decline of Oxford and Cambridge has lasted for a hundred years, which is directly manifested in the decline of enrollment and indifference to scientific research. Although the restoration of the monarchy hindered the great progress of British higher education, under the influence of the Renaissance, the Reformation and the large-scale industrial revolution, universities still showed a weak secularization tendency in teaching content. Although this secularization did not have a direct impact on the industrial revolution, new natural sciences gradually entered the university classroom. Universities in England are declining, while universities in Scotland are thriving. This sharp contrast shows that British universities have reached the point where they must be reformed.

Section 1 Decline of Higher Education

/kloc-Before the 9th century, there were only two universities in Britain-Oxford and Cambridge. Although several universities have been established in Scotland, Oxford and Cambridge are the major universities in Britain. 17.18th century, Oxford and Cambridge were at a standstill due to political and religious struggles, which could not reflect the new national needs in the era of industrial transformation. They "have not changed their loyalty to the old rulers, their tone, value orientation and structure remain unchanged ... they are behind the times and become more and more narrow, rigid and outdated."

First, the decline of universities.

Oxford University and Cambridge University, which were born in 12. 13 century, were in a contradictory position from the beginning. They had to fight for independence and rely on religion and the court. Religion not only brings financial income to universities, but also determines the teaching content of universities. The imperial court granted universities many privileges to protect them, but restricted their reform. The dependence of a university on religion and the imperial court determines that its rise and fall cannot be controlled by itself. From 17 to 18, the decline of British universities is not only manifested in the decline of enrollment, the stale management of universities and the neglect of scientific research, but also in the emergence of a large number of private academies.

The number of students enrolled has decreased and the composition of students has changed.

Due to political, religious and economic reasons, Oxford University and Cambridge University have experienced ups and downs since their birth. From 65438 to the 1960s, it experienced a huge increase in the number of students. Although this growth weakened in the 1990s for various reasons, the university experienced another expansion after 16 10. By the 1930s, the number of students in Oxford and Cambridge exceeded 4,000, and the average enrollment of the two universities was about 450. According to Lawrence? According to the textual research of Lawrence Tong's article in 1969, if the people who entered the law school at that time were counted, in the peak age of enrollment in17th century, the number of people who entered the higher education field every year was not less than 1240, accounting for 2.5% of the total population of the male age group at that time, reaching 65,438. However, after the outbreak of civil war, especially after the restoration of Stuart dynasty, the number of college students has changed greatly, which is manifested in the decline of the number of students and the changes in the composition of students.

The significant decline in the number of college students began in 1670 after the restoration of the monarchy, and this situation continued until1the beginning of the 9th century. From 1680 to 1690, the average annual enrollment of Oxford University and Cambridge University is 32 1 and 294 respectively. In the next decade, this number will drop to 303 and 238 respectively; In the18th century, the situation became more severe. In most years, the enrollment of Oxford University is below 300, while in 1750 ~ 1790, the enrollment of one year is only 182. Like Oxford, since the 1930s, Cambridge has enrolled fewer than 200 students annually. The largest college in Oxford University has only 83 students in 1750, while only three colleges in Cambridge University have more than 50 students in 178 1, and only seven have more than 40 students. The decline in enrollment has led to a decrease in the number of people obtaining bachelor's degrees. According to Stern's estimation, there were about 230 bachelor's degrees from 1660 to 150 in Oxford University in the 1920s, and even dropped to 150 after 1950s. In addition, many students left school without finishing their studies. For example, in 1760 ~ 1780, about one third of the students in Cambridge University were unemployed. The significant decline in the number of college students in this period is in sharp contrast not only with the sharp increase in the number of college students at the end of 16 and the beginning of 17, but also with the population growth at that time. By 1800, the population of England and Wales will be twice that of 1660. It also formed a strong contrast with the vigorous development of primary and secondary education at that time. Those middle school graduates who can't get into college begin to get college education from other channels. They either go to private schools or go far away from home to study in continental Europe. According to records, Leiden University in the Netherlands alone received more than 2,000 British students in the17th century.

For a long time, medieval universities have a wide range of students. Due to the principle of free teaching in Christianity and the frugal living environment in universities, poor students can easily become doctors through study. However, since the15th century, the cost of obtaining a doctorate has gradually increased, and the academic life of universities has become more aristocratic. The pursuit of luxury ostentation and extravagance in accommodation, ceremonies and costumes is increasingly strong. It is difficult for poor students to find a place in law schools and medical schools, so they have to take short and little-known courses. Moreover, they also found that the college was occupied by more and more rich people, with servants and tutors. These nobles received special treatment in the university until the18th century. Judging from the situation in Britain, before16th century, British aristocrats rarely went to universities to study, because their so-called education of enjoying an elegant life did not require academic training from universities. During the reign of Henry VIII, many nobles began to enter universities, and there were more people in Elizabethan times. 1563, 67 members of parliament went to college. 1584, the number doubled. 1593, there were 16 1 college graduates among the members of parliament. /kloc-In the second half of the 6th century, the ratio of students in Oxford and Cambridge University was 5: 3, and by the beginning of the 7th century, it had become 5: 6.

Students with civilian background are mainly children of ordinary employees, small businessmen and wealthy farmers. Their purpose of entering the university is to become priests or teachers of grammar schools. They often rely on scholarships or the help of bishops and rich people to pay for their studies. At the end of 16, students from this social group accounted for more than half of the total registered population, but by the beginning of 17 (160 1), the proportion had dropped to 42%. During the period from1637 to1690, the proportion further decreased to 37%. This situation worsened throughout the18th century. To 18 10, the proportion of civilian origin is only 1%. Undoubtedly, the rising cost of learning and the general economic crisis are the important reasons for the decline in the proportion of civilian students, but another reason that cannot be ignored is that scholarships are gradually monopolized by the rich, and it is difficult for poor students to obtain scholarships to pay for the increasing study expenses. Of course, the reason that influenced the poor students to enter the university may also be the saturation of teachers and priests at that time.

In short, from 17 to 18, universities in Britain, including those in other European countries, gradually lost their welfare function of providing shelter for poor students, and the rich gradually replaced civilians as the main body of universities, and universities became places for cultivating the ruling class.

(B) the rigidity and backwardness of university management

Oxford University and Cambridge University formed a management system with colleges as the main part and universities as the auxiliary part in the early days of their establishment. 17.18th century, colleges became the leading force of universities. The college is well organized, and the control is in the hands of the dean of the college, almost all of whom are conservatives. Not only are these people not interested in reform, but some people even reject it extremely. It is conceivable that the only vice-president of the university elected from these people every year will take an attitude towards the reform. Although both universities have school committees (Oxford University has a Senate and Cambridge University has a Senate), their task is only to agree or disagree with the suggestions made by the deans, and most members of the legislative committees are conservatives. Under the control of these academic oligarchs and under the restriction of Cambridge University Code 1570 and Oxford University Code 1636, the management of British universities in 17.438+08 century fell behind the requirements of the times.

Since16th century, teaching has always been the responsibility of colleges, and conferring degrees is the power of universities. Universities are mainly concerned with the awarding of degrees. As for courses and exams, there are provisions in the university code. The university has no intention of making any changes, and the management of teaching and examination in the college is extremely loose. For most students, studying for a bachelor of arts degree in order to get a seat in a church or grammar school is their only purpose, and it usually takes four years to get a degree. Although new knowledge and new disciplines appeared in this period, Latin and Greek have lost their practical value in modern society, and classical disciplines and scholastic knowledge serving to cultivate gentlemen still dominate the curriculum. The teaching contents of undergraduates are mainly the works of famous poets, speakers and historians in Latin and Greek, rhetoric with Latin annotations and Aristotle's logic and philosophy. Sticking to classical disciplines and scholasticism has not been criticized by people, but has been respected by people. Lord Chesterfield (1694 ~1773, British politician and writer) warned his son that "classical knowledge is absolutely necessary for everyone, because everyone wants to say so." Influential thinkers such as Locke also insist that Latin still has reason to continue to occupy a major position in university courses, because it is still the international language of academia, which not only university scholars must master, but also is an extremely useful ornament for educated gentlemen. Of course, social changes have also led to the opening of some new lectures in universities, such as anatomy, botany, astronomy, geology, Arabic, geometry and ancient history. However, the syllabus remains unchanged, and it is difficult to incorporate these new contents into the study plan, and this knowledge is not required for the degree examination. Fortunately, some students still pay extra for these lectures. However, the teaching management of lectures in colleges and universities is extremely loose. Although one of the requirements for obtaining a degree is to attend public lectures, some lectures are useless. Many lectures are called "wall lectures" because there are no students, only four empty walls and empty seats. Many people who hold professorships do not give lectures, such as Edward? EdwardWaring became the sixth Lucas professor of mathematics at Cambridge University in 1760, but he didn't give a lecture because his "profound research is not suitable for any kind of lecture to communicate". And 1764 Richard, who was appointed as a chemistry professor at Cambridge University? Although RichardWatson held a lecture course in1May, it was recorded that "he knew nothing about chemistry, never read a few words about this subject, and never did any experiments." There are many similar examples. Woodward Professor of Geology was established in Cambridge. Mudri Middleton of Trinity College knew nothing about geology, but he did not hesitate to win the position for himself. After his inaugural speech, he enjoyed an allowance and did nothing. What is even more incredible for people nowadays is that professors often change their subjects, as if they are proficient in all fields. Like Francis? Francis Gleason became a Greek lecturer at Cambridge University on 1625, and a royal professor of anatomy on 1636. Watson mentioned earlier, in 177 1 year, exchanged the position of chemistry professor at Cambridge University for King James' theology lecture, and occupied this position for 34 years. This shows that the university was lax in managing professors at that time. At that time, the requirements for professorship were not very strict, and getting enough support was the main condition for becoming a professor. Therefore, in the selection and appointment of professors, the phenomenon of favoritism and malpractice is very common, and some positions are even occupied by people in some areas. 1726 an Oxford satirist sneered: "I know a lot about the doorways of choosing a professor of moral philosophy. Several people who have never looked up at the starry sky in their lives have become professors of astronomy. " It is conceivable that under the guidance of such a professor, it is difficult to ensure high-quality teaching.

As for the examination, although the examination system in18th century has become more and more complicated, it is not difficult to pass the examination. According to the university rules, an exam is a conjecture to prove a hypothesis with syllogism plus wisdom and eloquence in front of the examiner. This is only an oral exam, and it is only for students who take the final exam. The content of the examination focuses on rhetoric, logic, morality and astronomy. It was not until 1763 that Cambridge University began to adopt written examination, and English replaced Latin. In order to encourage students to study hard, the test scores are divided into several grades from passing to grade one, which is the beginning of the honorary degree examination in mathematics at Cambridge University and the earliest honorary degree examination. According to modern standards, the requirements for passing the exam are very low. At the end of 18, as long as you have studied Euclid's geometry, simple binomial and a little moral philosophy, it will be enough for the exam. Of course, it is much more difficult to get an honorary degree, and you need to pass the exams in arithmetic, algebra, calculus, geometry, trigonometry, mechanics, hydrostatics, optics, astronomy and so on. Compared with Cambridge, the examination in Oxford University is more of a ceremony than a test. "In Oxford, whether a student graduates depends on the following basic conditions: boarding at school for more than 13 weeks; Willing to be inspected by the Anglican Church; Pass some oral tests. " Oxford University did not require a written test until 1807. Students can pass the questions debated in the oral exam by memorizing them intact. For Oxford University 17 16 to 19, two weeks of rote learning can cope. Moreover, some students can get degrees by cheating. Such an examination system makes few people study hard for their degrees. Many people eat, drink and have fun. Don't let graduation bother them. Although the punishment for students includes doing extra homework, not allowed to go out, fines, etc. Corporal punishment has become history. At the end of 18, the students who violated the discipline in Cambridge were only punished by reciting "learninglines".

The looseness of university teaching and examination system has been criticized by people, and some people try to reform it. For example, between 1773 and 1776, John of Cambridge University? JohnJebb tried many times to implement the annual college examination for all students, but all ended in failure. 1789 Simmons, Weiss? In his letter to the President of Oxford University, Knox also advocated stricter discipline and demanded more university tutors. University tutors should conduct paternalistic management of students, confiscate the donated property of useless professors and dismiss them. Useful professors should give lectures three times a week, otherwise they will be dismissed. He wrote in 178 1 that sending children to any university without the protection of private education will "put their knowledge, morality, health and future at risk". Knox's disappointment with the university can also be found elsewhere. Edward, a famous historian who wrote The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire? EdwardGibbon entered MagdalenCollege when 1752 was less than 15 years old, but only stayed for more than one year before dropping out. He once wrote: "I don't think I owe anything to Oxford University; Oxford University will be happy not to recognize me as a son, because I am willing to deny her as a mother. I stayed in Modlin College for 14 months; This 14 month is the most idle and inefficient period in my life. ..... At that time, academicians were decent and easy-going people, passively enjoying the gifts of the founders; They live a rigid life day after day: churches and canteens, coffee shops and public activity rooms. Finally, they are tired and lazy and sleep for a long time. They have bid farewell to the drudgery of reading, thinking and writing without feeling guilty; The twigs of knowledge and wisdom withered and fell to the ground without bearing any fruit for investors or society. As a self-funded student from a gentry family, I have to associate with academicians. I thought they would have an interesting and enlightening discussion on literature, but their conversation was stuck in the circle of academic affairs, Conservative politics, personal trivia and privacy scandals. Their boring drinking gives young people an excuse to binge ... "From Knox's and Gibbon's criticism of universities, we can see the dead hanging over British universities. 17 10 A German scholar was deeply shocked by the decline of universities when traveling in Britain. He found that the books in the library of Cambridge University were moldy, not only dusty, but also scattered all over the floor, which showed that these books had been neglected for a long time. He had to wear an apron in case the fragments of the book fell on his clothes. Although compared with Oxford University, Cambridge University is a little angry. For example, after 1730 Cambridge's school affairs committee was established, examinations were taken seriously. But on the whole, compared with the profound changes in other fields, Oxford and Cambridge still find it difficult to break through the obstacles of conservative forces and keep up with the pace of social development.

(C) the rise of private colleges

In sharp contrast to the decline of universities in the18th century, the rise of private academies is not only a symbol of the decline of universities, but also a positive response to social changes. These private schools have different degrees, some are secondary education and some are higher education. Their courses were close to the reality of life, adapted to the trend of capitalist development at that time, and were very popular with the society. The emergence of private schools proves the law of educational development, that is, if one form of education or one type of school cannot meet the needs of social development, society will certainly create another form of education or school to meet the specific social and educational needs.

1662 after the promulgation of the British unification act, a large number of private colleges appeared, which required teachers to be loyal to the state religion or they would be expelled. The law of 1662 drove a large number of teachers and students who did not believe in the state religion out of the campus, and some former university teachers and graduates began to set up their own academies to recruit disciples. Richard Oliver Cromwell (1599 ~ 1658), who was appointed as the vice president of Durham University (closed after charles ii took office), was the first person to open the college. It is said that RichardFrankland has more than 300 students in his home in Yorkshire. Private colleges combine the functions of grammar schools and university education. They provide places for non-Christians excluded from Oxford and Cambridge universities to receive higher education. Some academies failed to get rid of the influence of universities and only paid attention to classic subjects in their courses, but most academies paid attention to the latest development of ethics and natural sciences, offering much richer courses than universities. In addition to classical subjects, English grammar, arithmetic, accounting, geometry, history, basic science and modern foreign languages are all within the teaching scope. To a great extent, the college has promoted the development of English language and literature, modern history and political studies. Their teaching methods also encourage students to think. There is no university-style lecture based on standard textbooks. Instead, there is extensive reading and free debate among students. Teaching in English instead of college Latin also makes teaching more efficient. The students in the academy are serious, which is in sharp contrast with the laziness of the students in the university. Moreover, the cost of the Academy of Fine Arts is mostly low, which is one of the reasons why some students choose the Academy of Fine Arts instead of universities.

Private schools gradually disappeared at the end of 18, and its rise and disappearance fully shows that universities have fallen behind. When the university failed to meet the requirements of the times, it partially played a role, trained middle-class talents and played an important role in social change. Through the teaching of mathematics and experimental science, it laid the ideological and talent foundation for the industrial revolution.

Second, the reasons for the decline of universities

17. 18 century The reasons for the decline of British universities are various, including political and religious reasons and education itself.

(1) Political reasons

/kloc-in the 0/7th century, civil war broke out in Britain, and the emerging bourgeoisie seized power from the king, but the victory of the bourgeoisie was quickly destroyed by the return of the Stuart dynasty. These two historical events changed the historical process of Britain, and at the same time had a very significant impact on education, especially higher education, which led to the stagnation and decline of British universities for a century.

1642 ~ 165 1 has complicated religious, economic and social reasons, but its outbreak is mainly manifested in the opposition of the Protestant majority of the emerging bourgeoisie in the House of Commons to the compulsory tax policy of King Charles I, and the split between the parliamentary faction and the royalist faction appears all over the country. During the civil war, the development of universities was seriously disturbed. In 1930s, the enrollment of college students in 1950s was only half of that in 1930s, while in Oxford University, the enrollment in 1960s was only110 years ago. Shortly after the civil war began, the king fled from London to Oxford in the winter of 1642. In the following three and a half years, Oxford became the temporary capital of Charles I, and the royal court, government and military headquarters were all located in Oxford. Many colleges were occupied, and the king traditionally lived in the Christian church college, and members loyal to him held meetings in the canteen. The Queen lives in Merton College, and the arms are stored in the new college. The king collected gold and silver vessels from various colleges to make coins. Although the war was not fought in Oxford and the school buildings were not greatly damaged, the education and teaching work actually stopped during the civil war. All people under the age of 60 are forced into military service, and junior personnel carry weapons and shoulder the obligations of soldiers. Comparatively speaking, Cambridge University suffered less damage because of the Puritans' dominance, but the civil unrest caused by the civil war also inevitably affected the number of university admissions. Of course, during the Puritan Revolution, there were some ideas to expand and reform higher education, but many of these ideas were destroyed by the restoration of Stuart dynasty before they were realized.

/kloc-the restoration of the monarchy in 0/660 means that the House of Lords, bishops and the Anglican Church have returned to the historical stage. The royalist parliament composed of aristocratic gentlemen retaliated against Puritans and Republicans. They made a series of laws to try to excommunicate all Puritans from the church and the government. In particular, the British Unification Act 1662 reiterated Elizabeth I's order to unify the prayers of the national liturgy. The Episcopal Church no longer declares that everyone belongs to the Episcopal Church, and people who do not believe in the Episcopal Church (such as Roman Catholics) are expelled and persecuted for the first time. The bill requires all priests, university teachers and school teachers to sign a statement to respect the Anglican liturgy, and school teachers must have the permission of the bishop to teach, otherwise they will be fined or detained. Under the requirements of the "Unification Act", 150 teachers in universities and other schools were expelled as heretics, and non-Christian students were also denied entry in universities. In a word, the state regards universities as the power to unify the state religion. Under the control of kingship and religion, non-Catholics were excluded from the circle of universities, and the vitality of universities in the period of * * * was shrouded in a conservative atmosphere. In the face of fierce social changes, universities stick to their defects and fail to play an innovative role.

(B) internal reasons for education

Besides the influence of civil war and monarchy restoration, the decline of British universities also has its own reasons. They insisted on classical courses and limited their functions to the narrow scope of providing education for the country's gentlemen and the clergy of the China Church. As everyone knows, the wheel of history has been rolling forward, and the education of classical subjects can no longer meet the needs of the emerging bourgeoisie on the historical stage. At the same time, the development of emerging capitalist countries urgently needs higher education to be linked with national economic life, and universities are indifferent to it. This is not only the result of the long-term control of the university by religion and kingship, but also the inertia of the feudal conservative tradition formed by medieval universities. This historical inertia makes universities lose their initiative consciousness of seeking development in social changes and become "old people" who lag behind the times.

Section 2 Higher Education and Industrial Revolution: Loose Connection

/kloc-the industrial revolution marked by the use of steam engines in the 0/8th century opened a new era of British modernization and a new chapter in human history. The industrial revolution is the result of political changes since the middle of17th century, and it is also the product of scientific and technological revolution and the development of handicraft workshops. Although a few people, such as Newton, used to engage in scientific research and teaching in universities, the technological foundation on which the industrial revolution relied did not originate from universities. In fact, by the beginning of19th century, the functions, structures, courses and enrollment of Oxford and Cambridge universities were no different from those of12.6438+03rd century. The industrial revolution eventually led to profound changes in the field of higher education, but the contribution of higher education to the industrial revolution is minimal, and there is only a very loose connection with the industrial revolution.

I. Universities and the scientific revolution

The industrial revolution, which began in the 1960s, was marked by the invention of cotton spinning machines, looms and steam engines, and the development of canals, highways and railways. Although most of these inventions were made by workers with low education and were the products of empiricism, they undoubtedly had their scientific basis, and it was the scientific revolution in Britain 16 to 18 that laid the scientific foundation for the industrial revolution. Many graduates and professors from Oxford University and Cambridge University initiated and led the scientific revolution.

Francis Bacon (1561-1626) was the first philosopher in modern European history who broke free from the shackles of scholasticism and advocated experimental science. He was called "the true ancestor of the whole modern experimental science" by Marx. Before entering politics, he studied law at Trinity College, Cambridge University. Bacon put forward the methodology of experimental induction in his main work, Instrumental Theory (1620). He advocates starting with empirical materials and inventing new science and technology by means of experiments and induction. Bacon spoke highly of the new technology. He said, "among all the benefits that can be given to mankind, I think the greatest is to discover new technologies, new talents and articles aimed at improving human life." Although Bacon himself did not make any achievements in scientific practice, the scientific methodology he advocated had a far-reaching impact on the subsequent scientific development. In addition, Bacon once publicized the idea of science and technology education with great enthusiasm. The HouseofSolomon, which he described in TheNewAtlantis, studies the causes of all things and the mysteries of the movement of all things, which has influenced the courses of colleges established by non-Christians to some extent. Bacon's admiration for experimental science and technology education has played a great role in emancipating people's minds.

Robert Boyle (1627— 169 1) is a professor at Oxford University and has made outstanding contributions to physics and chemistry. He discovered Hooke-Edm Edme Mariotte's law, that is, at the same temperature, the volume of a certain mass of gas is inversely proportional to the pressure. He made a vacuum pump with the help of his assistant Hooke, and proved Galileo's view on falling body motion in his own vacuum. His research on vacuum promoted the development of fluid mechanics and laid a theoretical foundation for the invention of steam engines in the17th century. Boyle's main contribution is in chemistry. He gave a clear definition of chemical elements and put forward "particle theory", which made chemistry break away from alchemy and sublimate into a theoretical science. Boyle also suggested that the government invest 12000 pounds to establish Bacon's "New Atlantic Island" in Ireland.

Robert hooke (1635— 1703) is a famous physicist and astronomer. He studied in Oxford, served as a choir member in Oxford University Church after graduation, and helped Boyle make a vacuum pump. From 1662 to 1703, he served as the first experimental administrator of the Royal Society. He invented experimental instruments such as microscope and telescope, and improved the pendulum for astronomical observation. He made an in-depth study of the elasticity of objects and discovered Hooke's law of elasticity in 1676. According to this law, within the elastic limit, the elasticity of the spring is directly proportional to the length of the spring.

Isaac Newton (1642-1727) was the pinnacle of British scientific revolution in17th century. /kloc-He entered Trinity College of Cambridge University at the age of 0/9 and became a professor of mathematics at the age of 27. He has been at Cambridge University for 30 years. Because of his influence, mathematics became the most important subject in Cambridge University, and finally dominated the arts and sciences.

Newton's greatest contribution to science is the classical mechanical system he founded. He summed up the achievements of mechanics, celestial mechanics and mathematics in the17th century, unified celestial mechanics and the mechanics of objects on the earth into a unified discipline of mechanical movement, correctly reflected the objective laws of mechanical movement of macroscopic objects, and realized the first great synthesis of natural science and a great leap for human beings to understand nature. The establishment of classical mechanics provides important theoretical guidance for people to understand and transform nature, is the basis for the development of modern astronomy and physics, and provides theoretical weapons for the development of machine building, civil engineering and transportation. In addition, his discovery of white light composition laid the foundation for physical optics. In mathematics, he founded binomial theorem and calculus, which provided mathematical tools for the calculation and quantitative analysis of astronomy, mechanics and other disciplines. Newton is known as "the father of modern science" because of his contribution to science. His achievements also prompted the university to make some changes in the curriculum at the end of 17 and the beginning of 2008, adding some real subjects and offering natural science lectures.

The achievements of modern scientific revolution in astronomy, physics, chemistry and other fields have undoubtedly played an inestimable role in the development of productive forces and social change. Of course, the progress of scientific knowledge did not directly lead to the industrial revolution in Britain, but the significance of the scientific revolution lies in that it cultivated people's scientific world outlook of attaching importance to experience, experiments and quantitative analysis of the relationship between things, and stimulated people's interest in exploring natural mysteries and expanding scientific knowledge, which undoubtedly provided a good social atmosphere for the industrial revolution and indirectly affected it.

Second, scientific lectures and industrial revolution in universities.

17. 18 The general interest of the whole society in science has also prompted Oxford University and Cambridge University to set up some natural science professors. 1663, charles ii allowed Cambridge University to set up a mathematics professor position, and the college stipulated that all undergraduates should attend this lecture after completing their second year of study. The position of professor of mathematics at Cambridge University provides a space for Newton, a great scientist, to display his talents. During the period from1702 to1750, the University of Cambridge established chairs in chemistry, astronomy, experimental philosophy, anatomy, botany, geology and geometry. Oxford University has also established chairs in botany (1728), experimental philosophy (1729), clinical medicine (1772) and anatomy (1767), especially1788 ~/kloc.