The change in Poland was achieved through parliamentary elections after the opposition organizations gained legal status, and most countries in Eastern Europe have changed in this way. After the evolution of Democratic Germany, it ended in the way of merging into the Federal Republic of Germany. The change in Romania ended in the form of domestic violence. After the evolution of Yugoslavia, Yugoslavia disintegrated and fierce regional wars broke out. In the process of drastic changes in eastern Europe, although different countries have shown some different characteristics due to different situations, they have generally experienced three similar stages. An in-depth analysis of these three stages can sum up profound historical lessons. The first stage is characterized by increasing discontent among the masses, pressure and even challenges from opposition parties inside and outside the party to the ruling party, and the situation is seriously turbulent. The fundamental reason for this situation lies in the fact that Eastern European countries have not solved the serious problems accumulated in political and economic systems and policies for a long time, bureaucracy and even corruption have not been eradicated or corrected, economic development has been slow or even stagnant, and people's living standards have not improved. As a result, the masses are seriously dissatisfied and disappointed, and the ruling party has lost the cohesive role of the leading core. The second stage is characterized by the inability of the ruling party to control the turbulent situation: or compromise with the opposition, which will inevitably lead to the ideological confusion of the masses and make the situation completely out of control; Or hope that the army will suppress it without the support of the masses. After the second stage, the third stage, that is, the change of political situation, becomes inevitable.
The drastic changes in eastern European countries are not accidental, but the total outbreak of various contradictions accumulated by various countries for a long time, which is the result of the comprehensive action of various factors. Secondly, the textbook analyzes the reasons for the drastic changes from three aspects. First, historical reasons. After World War II, eight eastern European countries (Yugoslavia, Albania, Hungary, Czech Republic, Bulgaria, Poland, Romania and Democratic Germany) established people's democratic regimes and embarked on the socialist road, which was achieved on the basis of the victory of the anti-fascist war and with the support and help of the Soviet Union. In order to counter the cold war offensive of the United States, the diplomatic strategy of the Soviet Union in the early post-war period put avoiding isolation and ensuring its own security in the first place. To this end, the Soviet Union intends to consolidate its sphere of influence in Eastern Europe and force Eastern European countries to be consistent with it in their domestic and foreign policies. Politically, the Soviet Union asked the ruling parties in eastern European countries to deploy action plans according to their will to handle internal affairs and relations. Economically, the economic system of the Soviet Union has become the only socialist model that can be pursued. Eastern European countries in the cold war situation have not really achieved independent status. At the same time, due to lack of experience, most countries in eastern Europe copied the economic and political system model of the Soviet Union. Economically: After World War II, the Soviet Union's highly centralized planned economic system, one-sided development of heavy industry and industrialization policies with high speed, high accumulation and high investment were widely adopted by eastern European countries. In order to eliminate the negative consequences of this economic model and policy in the future, although eastern European countries have carried out economic reforms, most of them have failed to break through the framework of this economic model, resulting in little effect, slow economic development and even a landslide. Politics: Due to the growth and expansion of bureaucracy under the highly centralized political system, democracy and legal system have been seriously damaged, and problems such as privilege and corruption have emerged. Economic and political mistakes and deviations have reduced the prestige of political parties and governments in eastern European countries among the masses. As a result, the opposition can win a considerable number of people and eventually gain political power. Second, the reform failed. Economic reform did not break through the framework of the old model, and the results were not great, which led to economic crisis and political crisis. The party and government in eastern European countries finally divorced from the masses, which is the main reason for the drastic changes in eastern European countries. Third, about external reasons. The first is the Soviet factor. After World War II, the Soviet Union's high-pressure control over eastern European countries, on the one hand, aggravated the contradiction between the Soviet Union and the East, on the other hand, maintained the actual strength of the Soviet Union and the East Group. From 65438 to 0985, after Gorbachev came to power, he contracted strategically in the face of the decline of the Soviet Union, and the Soviet Union's policy toward Eastern Europe also changed fundamentally. Gorbachev relaxed his control over Eastern Europe in order to ease relations with the United States and Western Europe. At the same time, Gorbachev has no lack of intention to promote his "new thinking" in order to bring the so-called "Gorbachev Sect" in Eastern European countries to power. Gorbachev's "new thinking" of Eastern European policy has promoted the reorganization, differentiation and transformation of various parties in Eastern Europe, catalyzed the reform in Eastern Europe, and prompted the opposition in Eastern European countries to take advantage of the situation. Followed by western factors. "Peaceful evolution" is the long-term basic strategy of western imperialist countries led by the United States against socialist countries, and Eastern Europe is the breakthrough for them to implement this strategic choice. In the early 1980s, western countries stepped up the implementation of this strategy. In the process of drastic changes in eastern Europe, western countries further coordinated their actions and adopted various media to publicize western values and carry out ideological infiltration; Use loans, trade and technical assistance to attract eastern European countries to move closer to the west; Using "human rights" to interfere in internal affairs, fostering and supporting internal opposition forces in eastern European countries and other means directly intervened in the development of the situation. Textbooks point out that the Soviet Union and the West are important reasons for the drastic changes in Eastern Europe.
The disintegration of the Soviet Union. "
1. Gorbachev's reform. 1. Reform background: As one of the two superpowers, the Soviet Union has a huge military strength comparable to that of the United States, but its economic strength has always been far inferior to that of the United States. After entering the 1970s, faced with the arrival of the new technological revolution era with electronic information technology as the core, the economy of the Soviet Union is declining and deteriorating day by day. The gap between the Soviet Union and western countries in science and technology has widened rapidly, and the economic strength has been unable to support the huge military expenditure and continue to compete with the United States for hegemony. In order to reverse the decline of economic development and maintain the status of the Soviet Union as a world power, it is imperative for the Soviet Union to carry out more thorough reforms in the 1980s. Second, the course and direction of Gorbachev's reform: 1985 Gorbachev became the general secretary of the Central Committee of the Soviet Union, and then launched a large-scale reform in the Soviet Union. At the beginning of the reform, Gorbachev established the policy of shifting the focus of work at home and abroad to economic development. However, the "strategy of accelerating economic development" formulated by the 27th National Congress of the Soviet Union in 1986 has not achieved any results. Economic reform cannot be advanced. Gorbachev believed that the main reason was that political resistance was too great, and he turned to political reform in order to clear the obstacles. The core argument of Gorbachev's "new thinking" is that the interests of all mankind are above everything else, above the interests of a country, a nation and a class; The second is that the "new quality" of socialist society should be "democracy and humanism", and then put forward the argument that "the two systems of socialism and capitalism tend to be close", so Gorbachev replaced scientific socialism with "humane and democratic socialism". Therefore, the political reform he pursued was to transform socialism with "the standards of all mankind" and "democratic socialism". In the practice of political reform, Gorbachev started by advocating democratization and opening up and exposing the "dark side" of socialism, and developed into a western-style multi-party system. As a result, it has caused serious consequences of denying revolutionary history and vilifying the * * * production party and socialism, which has led to serious confusion in people's thinking and numerous parties and disputes. By 1990, with the Soviet Central Committee's decision to give up the party's leading position and implement the multi-party system, various contradictions in Soviet society were sharp and superficial, and the situation had reached an uncontrollable level.
2. The "August 19th Incident". First, the cause of the incident: the fundamental cause of the "August 19" incident was that Gorbachev's political reform led to the chaos of the situation; The direct trigger was the signing of the Treaty on Soviet Sovereignty and League of Nations. The signing of this treaty not only means that the state system of the Soviet Union will undergo major changes and become a loose confederation, but also means concessions and recognition of ethnic separation activities, and the disintegration of the Soviet Union begins (the six countries that joined the United Republic refused to participate in the signing of the new alliance treaty). Second, the essence of the problem reflected by the event results: the "August 19" incident failed in less than 60 hours, which is of course related to the poor planning of the initiator of the incident, but its essence is that the initiator of the incident is also unable to cope with the domestic and international situation triggered by the incident. Third, the impact of the incident: Gorbachev resigned as the general secretary of the CPSU Central Committee and demanded that the CPSU Central Committee dissolve itself, and the Soviet Union was in a state of disintegration. Yeltsin gained great prestige and seized power. Shortly thereafter, the Soviet Union completely disintegrated.
3. Reasons for the disintegration of the Soviet Union. The disintegration of the Soviet Union has its long-term historical reasons as well as its complicated practical reasons. In this regard, the textbook has made three aspects of analysis and summary. What needs to be explained is: 1. Historical reasons: the "institutional defects and policy mistakes" of the Soviet Union mainly include: the long-standing highly centralized planned economic system that does not adapt to the commodity economy; Economic development strategy with heavy industry as the core; Socialist democracy and legal system are imperfect; Mistakes in ethnic policies; Hegemonism in foreign relations and the arms race policy with the United States. Second, Gorbachev's political system reform was the direct cause of the disintegration of the Soviet Union. The purpose of correcting the shortcomings in the system and the mistakes in policies should be to improve the socialist system. Gorbachev's line and policies led to chaos and the final disintegration of the Soviet Union. The fundamental reason is that his guiding ideology of political reform deviates from the theory and direction of scientific socialism. Third, about external reasons. The understanding of this issue should include two aspects: first, the "peaceful evolution" strategy is a long-term strategy of western capitalist countries against socialist countries, and no socialist country can treat it lightly. Second, in the final analysis, what the western countries rely on to implement the strategy of "peaceful evolution" is economic strength. The reform of socialist countries begins with Eastern Europe. After the establishment of the socialist system, all eastern European countries applied the Soviet model and formed a highly centralized management system. The Soviet model was originally a special model implemented in an extraordinary state. However, Soviet leaders "imported" into Eastern Europe without thinking after the war, and its disadvantages became increasingly apparent. As a result, the reform phenomenon of reforming the Soviet model and taking its own path appeared one after another. Therefore, the Soviet Union and other eastern regions have been involved in the wave of socialist reform to varying degrees, forming an irreversible situation. However, the Soviet Union's reform in Eastern Europe did not achieve the goal of perfecting socialism. On the contrary, the reform came to a dead end, and the intensification of various contradictions reached an unmanageable level, which eventually made socialism lose its foundation for survival and development, and the * * * production party regime lost.
1in the summer of 988, the reform of the Soviet Union faced a complicated situation. On the one hand, economic reform is stagnant, on the other hand, left-wing radicalism is developing rapidly. 1990 After the 28th Congress of the Soviet Union was held, the situation in the Soviet Union changed dramatically, and various political forces were combined one after another, basically forming three forces, namely, the "radicals" headed by Yeltsin, the "centrists" headed by Gorbachev and the "traditionalists" headed by Gachev. In this context, the 8654,38+09 incident broke out, because it should be said that yanayev and others launched the 8654,38+09 incident to stop the evolution of the Soviet Union. However, the rapid failure of the 8 19 incident accelerated the evolution of the Soviet Union. Party history in 1993, ruling in 1974, the Soviet Union collapsed in an instant, and party flag, once flying all over the Soviet Union, landed. The disintegration of the Soviet Union is a "milestone" in the evolution of the Soviet Union. Without the Soviet Union, the Soviet Union will surely embark on the road of disintegration.