First, the time and background of its formation are different. The clique of Beiyang warlords and Anhui clique were formed in the late Qing Dynasty. 1895, the Qing government appointed Yuan Shikai as a new army to train in tianjin railway station in order to maintain its dominant position in the stormy weather. Since then, a powerful military group headed by Yuan has emerged. Yuan Shikai, backed by his military strength, forced the Qing court to abdicate, and the revolutionaries compromised and stole the achievements of the Revolution of 1911. This is how the clique of Beiyang warlords was formed.
Although the formation of southern warlords can be traced back to the Revolution of 1911, it was formally formed after the end of the war to protect the country. Warlords in Yunnan and Guangxi used the momentum of the war to protect the country to expand their power to neighboring provinces (Yunnan developed to Guizhou and Sichuan, and Guangxi developed to Guangdong and Hunan), thus forming Yunnan warlords headed by Tang and Guangxi warlords headed by Lu Rongting. Warlords in Sichuan, Guizhou, Guangdong and Hunan were also formed during this period.
The formation time of Feng Zhi warlord is roughly the same as that of the southern warlords, but the background is quite different. Warlords were formed on the basis of the army led by Zhang, that is, this army was gradually developed in the process of suppressing the Revolution of 1911 in Fengtian and maintaining the Qing Dynasty's rule in Fengtian. Therefore, the formation time of Feng Zhi warlord and southern warlord is the same, and the background is different. At the beginning of its establishment, its purpose was very similar to that of the northern warlords' direct and Anhui departments.
Second, warlords are different. There are various sources of modern warlords, but there are four main ones: one is the military attache of the Qing Dynasty. After the demise of the Qing dynasty, these people took control of the army and evolved into modern warlords, accounting for the majority of warlords. Second, they come from the grassroots. Because of their bravery and tight organization, these people gradually evolved from soldiers to warlords who controlled an army and occupied a piece of land. Feng Yuxiang belongs to this category. Third, soldiers with new military education, military schools in the modern sense, only existed in China at the end of 19 and the beginning of the 20th century. Some people who have received the new military education graduated from domestic schools and some from the Japanese Army NCO School. With the process of military development, such figures gradually increased in the ranks of warlords. Fourthly, the emergence and evolution of bandit leaders into warlords is determined by the characteristics of modern China society. Zhang is a typical figure of this kind. Compared with the northern and southern warlords, the leader of Feng Zhi's warlord is not only a bandit, but also the core figure of his leading group, such as Zhang Jinghui, Zhang, Tang Yulin, Ji Jinchun and Kan Chaoxi. Later, Zhang Xueliang and others attended the ceremony, and the structure of the first leader of Feng Military Group changed, but Feng Military Group was still dominated by greenwood people. This is obviously different from the northern and southern warlords. A figure from an outlaw background, with guns and turf, became a petty leader, with expanding power, was incorporated by the court and gradually developed into a great warlord, which is rare not only in China but also in other countries in the world. Modern warlords in China are the products of the transition period between the old and the new in modern China. Strictly speaking, it is impossible for warlords to put forward political ideas that meet the needs of the times, but this does not mean that they have no guiding ideology or ideology at all. Due to the different origins and education of warlords, their ideological systems are varied and strange. This is the product of the interweaving of old and new factors and conflicts in modern China society.
The common creed of warlord leaders is to fight for soldiers, guns, territory and power. I believe that with more soldiers and guns, the territory will be bigger, and the power of the territory will naturally increase. But in order to defeat their opponents and win public opinion, most of them also understand the role of ideology. If we classify its various ideologies, we can divide them into three categories. One is the feudal orthodoxy of respecting Confucius and reading classics. The second is to make use of bourgeois democratic legislation. Third, the wealthy superstitious class in Zhan Feng. It is still unknown which of the above three categories Zhang, the leader of the Bong warlord, belongs to. Obviously, Zhang Yisheng is a soldier, advocating force and pursuing power, but he has never had a clear and unified political proposition in his thoughts. During the period from 19 1 1 921,Zhang often played with words such as "unification", "country", "patriotism" and "nationalism" in order to develop factional forces. Especially after the May 4th Movement, due to the spread of anti-imperialist patriotic ideas and the upsurge of nationalist sentiment, the development of the situation forced them to use these words to win leadership and public support. But he suppressed 19 1 1 the Revolution of 1911 in Northeast China and the May 4th Movement in Northeast China19. Therefore, Zhang is not a pure nationalist, although he is playing with "nationalism". During this period, Zhang did not realize the role of ideology in the development of Feng School. 1922, when Zhang was preparing to compete with his immediate family for control of the Beijing government, he began to consider ideological issues. In order to give himself possible support against the direct war, he instructed General Xu Lanzhou to try to invent an ideological system that could unite the Fengxi Group (Xu Lanzhou, a native of Nangong County, Hebei Province,no. Zhitian. He graduated from Hunan Army College in his early years. 1907 came to the northeast with Xu Shichang, and later served as the commander of the first army division of Heilongjiang Province and the military affairs deputy of Heilongjiang Province. Zhang annexed Heilongjiang and became Zhang's subordinate. He was the deputy commander of Wei Zhenjun in the first direct war in 1922). According to Zhang's intention, Xu Lanzhou adopted the teachings of Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, * * and * *, and founded and publicized an eccentric "five religions in one" (the police chief of Guandongtang reported, 1922,126; Archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs 16 146, p. 7784). This patchwork of "five religions in one" has not become the guiding ideology of Feng Bu. In fact, after the war broke out, this work was abandoned.
After the first direct service war, President Xu Shichang ordered Zhang to be removed from his post according to his immediate intention. Zhang immediately declared independence in Luanzhou, renamed as Commander-in-Chief, and declared "autonomy" in Northeast China. The declaration said: "All treaties concluded before the Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China generally recognize the efforts made to protect the lives and property of friendly people. After that, if you have any representations, please ask the commander-in-chief for details. Since 1 this month, all treaties concluded by the Beijing government involving the three northeastern provinces, Inner Mongolia, Jehol and Chahar will not be recognized without the permission of the commander-in-chief. "[1] (p111. When Zhang returned to Fengtian, he was elected as the commander-in-chief of security in the three northeastern provinces by the representatives of the three northeastern provinces' parliaments, and announced the "joint provincial autonomy" in the three northeastern provinces. When they can only make progress, they advocate reunification by force or the establishment of a strong central government; When they can only protect themselves or want to protect themselves, they advocate provincial autonomy, which is a major feature of warlord politics, especially loyalty. During this period, Zhang was ashamed of defeat for the first time. In order to establish contact with the South and form an anti-direct connection, he once again resorted to democratic political ideas such as nationalism and federalism. However, Zhang only took these as slogans to cope with the situation, and never thought about how to implement them seriously. From 1925, Zhang began to implement an extreme anti-communist policy, which remained unchanged until 1928 was killed. As a result, the delusion of exchanging anti-communism for imperial support was not realized, but was stifled by imperialism. Northeast China is like the head of an "oriental rooster", covering Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning and eastern Inner Mongolia. Located in the border, it is vast in territory and abundant in resources. People of Han, Mongolian, Hui, Manchu, Korean and Oroqen nationalities live here. Now it is a world-famous industrial base, energy base and commodity grain base. With its unique geographical environment and historical process, it has formed a relatively stable regional unit and economic region.
During the period of Feng Zhi's warlord rule, the unique geographical environment in Northeast China also constituted the regional advantage of his rule. The geographical environment in Northeast China has two characteristics: First, it is relatively isolated from the outside world. Second, abundant natural resources. This unique geographical environment and rich natural resources provided geographical and resource advantages for Feng Zhi's warlord rule. First, militarily, it is in a strategic position of advancing, attacking and retreating. The northeast is geographically self-contained, with only a narrow corridor along the Bohai Bay in the southwest corner and Shanhaiguan stronghold to guard. Shanhaiguan, called Guan Yu in ancient times, is said to have been built by Emperor Wendi of Sui Dynasty in 583 A.D., and later became a border town for defending Qidan in the Tang Dynasty. Known as "the lock and key of the two capitals are unparalleled, and the Great Wall of Wan Li is the first pass". Shanhaiguan pass is not only a pass to defend the north inside Shanhaiguan pass, but also a pass with its own system outside Shanhaiguan pass. Zhang led the troops into the customs many times, competing for the Central Plains. If you win, push south, if you lose, you will close. The other side easily dare not go through customs for conquest. The first direct service battle was disastrous, and he directly pursued Shanhaiguan. The two sides squared off and finally negotiated peace. After the defeat of the four new Kuomintang warlords, the problem of changing the flag in Northeast China was finally solved by political means. Of course, there are many factors here, among which geographical advantage is the most important. At that time, the warlords of various factions in China, whether they controlled the national political power or occupied a corner of the local warlords, did not have such geographical advantages. For example, both the direct line and the Anhui line are located in central China, and the boundaries are intertwined. It is difficult to avoid conflicts with other factions, which is also not conducive to internal defense and consolidation. Second, the economy controls areas with rich resources and low population density. In a country with an absolute proportion of agricultural economy, economic advantages are mainly reflected in agricultural economy. Northeast China is developed late, and its population density is lower than other provinces in Guanzhong, so there are a lot of wasteland for development. However, with the continuous migration of population in the customs, the agricultural modernization in Northeast China developed earlier and made great progress and achievements. Agricultural mechanization, farm economy, scale operation and enterprise production in Northeast China, especially the commercialization, specialization and regionalization of grain and beans, have formed local advantages since modern times. Therefore, during the period from 16- 19 12 to 1928, the population in northeast China increased continuously, the cultivated land area expanded continuously, and the grain output increased rapidly. Moreover, the increase ratio of land area and grain output is greater than that of population growth [2] (P7 1). During the period when Feng was in power, the industrial economy in Northeast China developed faster than other provinces in Guanzhong. All these provided economic support for the rule of Feng Zhi warlord.
In a word, geographical advantages and sufficient economic support are not available to other warlords, because local warlords have gradually developed into big warlords who control the national political power. Warlord politics determines the political situation in which warring factions constantly strive for power and profit, and also determines the intrigue and contradictions within warlord factions. In essence, warlords can't violate this law, but compared with other warlords in China, their internal rule is relatively stable, and Zhang, as the leader of this group, also has strong cohesion.
In the history of Feng warlord, there have been three great changes: the first time was the incident that Tang Yulin left Zhang because of the disagreement of employing people. Finally, although Tang Yulin ran away with a traveler, the stability of Feng's internal rule was not affected. The second time was the defeat of the first direct war. After the defeat of the first direct line war, Xu Shichang, according to the direct line's will, ordered the removal of Zhang's ambassador to the governor of the three northeastern provinces, the governor and governor of Fengtian, pending investigation. Wu was appointed Governor of feng tian, Feng was appointed Governor of Heilongjiang Province, Yuan was appointed Governor of feng tian and Shi Jichang was appointed Governor of Heilongjiang Province. This is a direct route to attack Feng, divide and disintegrate Feng system. Wu Xiang wants to "alienate Zhang Jiubu and force him out". With the strength of the central government and the opportunity of defeat, it is easy to break up a warlord faction. Therefore, Feng, Wu, Yuan and Shi Jichang jointly sent a telegram: "I refuse to admit this disorderly life" (The Records of garrison headquarters, both capital city of Beiyang Government) and refused to take over Zhang's post. It can be seen that although Zhang was defeated, his position among Feng warlords has been consolidated, which cannot be changed by the Beijing government. One reason is that he still has strength; Second, his position and role in Feng School is irreplaceable by others. The third time was Guo Songling's defection. Guo Songling suddenly arise and soldiers, zhang felt very suddenly. When Shanhaiguan, Lianshan and Jinzhou were conquered, Zhang was terrified and at a loss, ready to escape. During this period, Zhang Zeng "wrote a letter to himself", admitting that years of war had affected people's lives, and said that he would take the blame and retire after the war with Guo. Of course, this is not from Zhang's mind, but a gesture to ease contradictions and win public opinion. After Jun Guo's failure, we should say something before we can make a preface. So Zhang presided over the meeting and proposed to make way for you. He asked Yuan to read the telegram and prepare it for publication the next day. The main idea of electrifying is: "Being a poor scholar will lead to war disaster", "In the future, I will hand over the administration of Northeast China to Wang Gongyuan (Yongjiang) and the military power to Wu Gong Xingquan (Sheng Jun)", and "I am willing to avoid the road and make way for saints". Before Wu finished electrification, he stood up and said, "I can't stand it all day." If you don't do it, let's leave together! " Wang Yongjiang also hurriedly stated: "Only when the master is here, I have to ask for instructions at any time, so as not to miss the country." Then almost all the participants said that now "is by no means the time for the master to retire." In this case, Zhang Dui said: "As everyone said, I still want to do it! Ok, in the future, someone will come out to preside over the overall situation in Northeast China, and I will definitely give way. " Everyone knows this farce of "getting out of the way" However, it also shows once again that after such a huge event, Zhang's dominant position in China and Northeast China is still very stable, and no one can replace it.
At that time, the ability of China warlord leaders to control factions was far from that of Zhang. Duan was a veteran of Beiyang School, but after the defeat of World War I, he lost control of Anhui Department, and Anhui Department never recovered. Wu's ability and prestige are not under Zhang's, but after the defeat of the second direct service war, the direct line fell apart, Feng Yuxiang was unique, and Sun also started a new stove. Although some small units continued to follow Wu, and Wu also made efforts to rally, this straight line never recovered. Comparatively speaking, the internal rule of warlords is stable, and Zhang's dominant position is consolidated. The period of Northern Warlords' rule was the most chaotic period in modern China, with frequent regime changes, constant warlord scuffles and serious economic damage. Under such a big historical background, the northeast under the rule of the system has maintained relative social stability and economic development. This is the fundamental reason why Feng Zhi warlord can develop into a big warlord group.
During the reign of 12 in northeast China, the warlord Feng Zhi first ensured the unification of the region. 19 16, except the northeast, most provinces and regions in China were divided by two or three or more warlords, and each warlord could command very limited troops. Therefore, the struggle to control the territory and political power of one province or several provinces has never stopped. The northeast, which is governed by the system, maintains a relatively unified and stable situation.
Second, direct damage from the war. From 19 16 to 1928, there were seven national wars: 19 17, 19 18. 1924, the second direct service war; 1925, Jun Guo's anti-service war; 1927 to 1928, the service war against the northern expeditionary army. In these seven major wars, Feng Bu played a major role four times. However, only 1 War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression in Jun Guo was carried out in the northeast of China, and the time was very short. This enabled the Northeast to avoid the direct destruction of the war.
Third, effective management can be implemented. During the reign of 12 in northeast China, the warlord Feng Zhi was able to ensure its effective administration by virtue of its geographical advantages and stable internal rule. For example, we have made remarkable achievements in eliminating bandits and ensuring social stability, absorbing foreign population, formulating rural economic policies, promoting agricultural production development, developing mining industry, building railways, formulating national industrial policies, promoting industrial economic development, and investing in education and cultural development.
The relative stability of society has promoted economic development. Although this development is still relatively slow, it is still considerable compared with other provinces and regions in China. During the period of Feng Systematic Administration, the population, land and grain in Northeast China increased in direct proportion. From 19 12 to 1928, the population of Northeast China increased by 10658 million. From 19 14 to 1930, the cultivated land area in Northeast China increased by 10406670590 mu. From 19 12 to 1930, the grain in Northeast China increased by 1008620695 tons. From this, we can draw a proportional relationship: for every additional population, 9. Expand 8 mu of arable land to produce grain 10 182 kg [2] (P7 1). Grain production has always been the foundation of social stability and the basic condition of industrial economic development.
During the period of Feng Zhi's warlord rule, the national industry in Northeast China also developed to a certain extent. For example, from 1905 to 19 14 and 19 15 to 1924, the textile industry was established in the first nine years and 88 in the last nine years. There were 54 soybean oil enterprises in the first nine years, and 75 in the last nine years. There were 28 brewing enterprises in the first nine years and 78 in the last nine years. There were two milling enterprises in the first nine years and 14 enterprises in the last nine years [3] (P43). Judging from the development of world history, this period was in the First World War and the post-war period, which provided a rare opportunity for the development of China's national industry. But at the same time, we should also see the monopoly position of imperialism, especially Japan and Russia, in the economic development of Northeast China, which brings difficulties to the industrial development of Northeast China. So it is rare to have such a degree of development. American scholar Bao Huade believes that "when Zhang ruled Manchuria, the material losses of domestic warlords, the paralysis of agriculture and economy, and the destruction of manpower did not appear in Manchuria" [4] (P 1 1). This comparative conclusion shows that during his reign, compared with the warlords in other provinces and regions, Feng Zhi's warlords had the outstanding characteristics of ensuring social stability and normal economic development in their ruling areas.
Feng is a warlord political group, which has ruled the Northeast 10 for many years, won the Central Plains for many times, and took charge of the Beijing regime several times. Its leader Zhang even ascended the throne of the last head of state during the Beiyang government. By studying these characteristics of this group, we can deeply understand modern China society, which still has important enlightenment today.