First of all, about the history of self-study.

We have been thinking about ourselves since the day human beings were born.

Know yourself! -Greek Temple of Delphini.

Aristotle's point of view is:

? Regard the self as a simple and active entity, that is, the soul, and think that the soul is connected with various senses.

Locke's empirical view;

? Linking self with human memory, we believe that the unity of human beings is completed by our memory.

Hume's views in the Enlightenment;

? The ego is completely fictional, only the illusion caused by the pronoun "I".

Kant's point of view is:

? Transcendental self

The viewpoint of experimental psychologists:

? The ego is an illusory existence.

William james (reintroducing self-concept into psychological research);

? Ego is divided into experiential ego and pure ego. The former includes material self, social self and spiritual self. And this part can be studied empirically.

? William james's self-cognition is dual. Self is not only an "object" composed of its own views and beliefs, but also an active information processor-subject.

Kuler's point of view:

? Self is the self established through interpersonal relationship, which is not only a personal entity, but also a product of society. He called this situation the widow's reflective self or mirror self. People will not only imagine how others think of themselves, but also imagine how others evaluate themselves in their own eyes and people's emotional reactions to these reflective evaluations.

Meade's point of view:

? It emphasizes the role of social experience in self-formation, and points out that when individuals can compare with others who have become their objects, only in a certain social environment can individuals adopt the attitude of other individuals towards themselves to interact. Without social experience, self cannot be produced.

Sullivan's point of view:

? Emphasize the social and interpersonal basis of self-development and the direct role of family members in children's self-formation. It is believed that the concept of "self" can only be further developed in interpersonal relationships.

Eormuth's point of view:

? The object, others and the environment are integrated into a self-ecological system, and it is considered that self-concept and self-ecological system are interdependent and influence each other, and a dynamic balance is achieved in the interaction.

Taguifer & Turner's point of view:

? Social identity theory: social relations are an important part of self-concept, and people try to make themselves feel good. People will feel better when they find that their group is better than other groups.

Freud's point of view:

? Ego is one of the important components of personality structure, and the other two components are id and superego. The ego is the part where you can consciously think, feel and judge. The function of self is to seek self-satisfaction, protect the body from harm and follow the principle of reality.

Rosenberg's point of view is:

? It is believed that the concept of self is the sum of individual thoughts and feelings about self, the organizational system of individual self-perception, and represents a person's way of looking at himself.

Wirseen's point of view:

? It is believed that self-concept is self-perception formed through experience and understanding of experience. This kind of perception comes from the experience of human-computer interaction, self-attribute and social environment, and it is multidimensional.

Marcus and Woolf's point of view:

? The concept of dynamic self, they think that self-concept is a polyhedron in content and structure, and it is a collection of different impressions, schemas, concepts, prototypes, theories, goals and tasks. The concept of self is dynamic, and only a part of it is activated under certain circumstances.

Second, the concept related to self.

(A) Self-schema

Self-schema is a set of self-beliefs that we use to organize and guide ourselves.

Self-reference effect (self-reference effect).

People are more efficient in dealing with self-related content and have the best memory effect.

Self-discrimination theory

The self-concept of individual perception includes three parts: ideal self, ought-to-be self, and real self. Ideal self and ought-to-be self have the function of self-guidance:

The ideal self guides the individual's pursuit of goals.

We should let ourselves avoid some targets.

The gap between the actual self and the ideal self will prompt people to narrow the distance between them, otherwise they will feel depressed. If you can't close the distance between your real self and yourself, it will lead to anger.

The construction of individual self-concept is related to the following aspects:

Inferring oneself from one's own behavior, people often infer their inner self-concept from their own behavior, and what I do is what I am.

Infer yourself from other people's behavior: others will guess what others think of me.

Inferring self through social comparison: By comparing with others, people often have a clearer understanding of themselves.

Infer yourself through self-awareness: reflect on yourself to understand yourself.

Social interaction theory (social interaction theory)

Meaningful communication between people in social life leads to the integration of self and social reality. Self is a symbol used by a person to express himself through behavior, and self-concept is the sum of his thoughts and emotions.

(2) Self-awareness

Self-consciousness: refers to the individual's psychological state when he takes himself as the object of concern.

According to the theory of self-awareness, when we focus on ourselves, we will evaluate and compare our current behaviors according to our own internal standards and values.

There are two kinds of self-awareness:

Private self-awareness: individuals pay more attention to their inner characteristics and feelings.

–? People with dominant inner self-awareness care more about their feelings, so they tend to exaggerate their reactions.

–? Pay more attention to your own characteristics, so that the internal events in your self-concept will be clear.

–? Always adhere to your own behavior standards and beliefs, and will not be affected by the external environment.

Public self-awareness: individuals pay more attention to their external aspects.

–? People with public self-awareness pay too much attention to the influence of others, so they are afraid of other people's comments and worry that others will have a bad evaluation of themselves.

–? It often leads to temporary inferiority, and it is easy to produce the distance between the ideal self and the actual self.

–? Often care about external standards of behavior.

(3) Self-esteem

Self-concept is the content related to emotion in people's self-concept. It refers to how a person affirms and praises himself, which is an important dimension of self-evaluation. There are two kinds of self-esteem: explicit self-esteem and implicit self-esteem.

The study of self-esteem is studied by different regional cultures. Western self-esteem is unitary, while China's self-esteem is pluralistic. Under the two cultures, the variation of self-esteem can be explained from three aspects: kindness, quality and positive self-deviation.

Two ways to build self-esteem:

Let individuals have their own successful experience in controlling the environment.

Let others have a positive evaluation of themselves.

A series of methods to enhance self-esteem:

Learn to explain life in a self-help way.

Use self-limiting strategy to make excuses for failure.

Use defense mechanisms to deny or escape negative feedback.

Learn to compare downward and use compensation.

When your ability is in doubt, earn what you are good at.

(d) Self-improvement and self-confirmation

Self-enhancement, also known as self-beautification or self-enhancement, refers to individuals collecting and explaining information about themselves in a way that is conducive to making a positive evaluation of themselves.

? In a sense, self-improvement is a deviation from egoism.

Self-verification refers to the process of finding and explaining situations to prove self-concept. Through self-confirmation, others have a consistent understanding of themselves, which also helps to improve the level of self-esteem.

(5) Self-efficacy

Self-efficacy refers to a person's belief that he has the ability to complete the determined task.

People can get huge rewards from their optimistic belief in their own ability and efficiency.

Self-efficacy guides people to set challenging goals and be stronger in the face of suffering.

(6) Self-expression

Self-presentation, also called self-presentation, refers to what people do when others form an impression of themselves. We are committed to managing the created image. We support our self-esteem and test our self-image by shirking, defending and apologizing.

(7) Self-limitation

Self-handicapping refers to a series of behaviors that people prepare in advance to explain their expected failure.

(8) Self-prosecution

Self-monitoring means that people control their own self-expression by observing the clues of others' self-expression in the process of interacting with others.

? People with high self-prosecution are good at performing in front of others and can shape their own behavior according to the situation and the needs of special people; People with low self-prosecution are not good at performing in front of others, do not value the situation and the influence of others, and do not express their true attitudes and feelings.

(9) Self-testifying prophecy

Self-fulfilling prophecy, also known as self-fulfilling prophecy, means that our expectations of others will also affect each other's behavior and make them act according to our expectations.

(10) Body image

Body image is a general term used to describe phenomena related to individuals' perception of their own bodies.

Third, self-deviation.

(1) spotlight effect

The Spotlight effect means that when people are in self-observation, they will overestimate their prominence, regard themselves as the center of a certain situation and overestimate what others think of them.

Corresponding to the spotlight effect is the illusion of transparency, that is, people think that once their hidden emotions are exposed, they will be discovered by others. In fact, others may not see it at all.

(B) selfish prejudice

Egoistic prejudice is also called egoistic prejudice. It means that when we deal with information related to ourselves, we can easily forgive our failures and happily accept the glory of success. And in many cases? There is a tendency to feel better than others.

People are willing to accept the honor of success, and it is easy to attribute success to their own talents and efforts, but blame failure on external factors such as bad luck or unsolvable problems.

The deviation of egoism is manifested in all aspects of life:

Morality: Most businessmen think they are more moral than ordinary businessmen.

Ability to work: 90% of managers value their achievements more than ordinary colleagues.

Smart: Most people feel smarter, more handsome and more impartial than the people around them.

Filial piety: Most adults think that they take care of their elderly parents more than their brothers and sisters.

Get rid of prejudice: People often think that they are less susceptible to prejudice than others.

pollyanna

People sometimes tend to be blindly optimistic about themselves.

Psychological research shows that with the development of the times, people's blind optimism is also on the rise. Although aiming high is conducive to success, setting your goals too high is likely to lead to failure.

How to overcome the disadvantages of blind optimism?

? Defensive pessimism? Can save us from the danger of blind optimism.

False consistency and false uniqueness

In order to establish a good self-image, we often show a tendency to overestimate or underestimate others' thoughts and behaviors, and overestimate others' praise of our views to support our position. This is the so-called false consensus effect.

If we agree with a certain point of view, we will hopefully be the first person to agree with the same point of view, as if our understanding of the world should be common sense. It seems that if we don't finish the task, we may think these mistakes are normal and comfort ourselves.

Fourth, self and culture.

(A) independent self and self-reliance

In different cultures, people have obviously different views on themselves, others and the relationship between them. People in American culture have independent egos, while people in East Asian culture have dependent egos.

Different from the independent self, self-dependent interpersonal relationship is not a tool to achieve personal goals, but an end in itself: maintaining relationships with others, paying attention to others in time, and paying attention to their needs, desires, goals, etc. But it is also based on the premise that while helping others achieve their goals, their own goals can also be helped.

Self-reliant people are selective when they care about others. Ego depends on team members, but it is farther away from members outside the team than independent ego.

(B) the differences in self-concept between eastern and western cultures

(C) the three-component model of self

Triandis believes that the ego consists of three parts: the private ego? , the public self? , group self? . And the probability of cultural influence sampling from these three parts, culture affects us through the following three factors:

Cultural paradigm: the level of individualism-collectivism tendency

Cultural Elasticity: High or Low Cultural Homogeneity

Cultural complexity: Cultural complexity is high or low.

(D) China people's self quaternion.

Psychologist Mr. Yang Guoshu believes that social orientation and personal orientation are the two most basic and important modes of interaction between human beings and the environment.

Traditional China people mainly adopt social orientation, which has four secondary orientations: relationship orientation, authority orientation, family orientation and other orientations.

With the development of society, China people's personal orientation is gradually enhanced. At this time, Mr. Yang Guoshu combined the relationship orientation with the authority orientation, and now it is also called the relationship orientation, so that the self of China people includes four aspects. It can also be used as a self-esteem model.