China is one of the oldest ancient civilizations in the world history. In its long development process, a set of standardized and strict civil service management system has gradually formed. These systems not only made the ancient Chinese empire run orderly, but also had an important impact on the formation of civil service systems in many countries at that time and even in modern western countries. A thorough study of the historical changes of the civil service system can provide necessary historical reference for the establishment of a scientific and reasonable national civil service management system in China. Therefore, the author investigates many aspects and characteristics of the traditional civil service system in China.
First, all aspects of China's traditional civil service system
1, civil service employment system.
The recruitment system of civil servants in ancient China mainly includes the hereditary system in the pre-Qin period, the recommendation system from Qin and Han Dynasties to Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, and the imperial examination system in Sui, Tang, Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties.
(1) hereditary system. Hereditary system, also known as Shi Qing Shi Lu system, prevailed in Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties, and its basic feature was the unity of imperial power and clan power. That is, the appointment of government officials at all levels, the rank and rank of officials are determined according to family blood relationship. The most representative form is the enfeoffment system and patriarchal clan system implemented in the Western Zhou Dynasty. The royal family and nobles inherited high officials and rich people from generation to generation by virtue of patriarchal clan system and lineage, and realized the unity of pro-nobility.
(2) recommendation system. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the royal family declined and the princes became independent. In order to win in the fierce merger war, all countries attach great importance to the selection of talents and abilities, so the selection methods of officials begin to diversify. After Qin and Han Dynasties, the civil servant selection system was mainly the recommendation system. Among them, inspection and requisition are its main ways. Chaju is a bottom-up way of selecting officials, that is, the court sets up various subjects according to different needs, designates relevant officials as promotion officials, and contributes corresponding talents according to regulations, and is hired or promoted after being examined by the court. Therefore, examination is an important part of the inspection system. The content of the examination covers all aspects such as moral conduct, cultural accomplishment and ability to handle affairs. Expropriation is a top-down way of selecting officials, that is, the characteristics of the emperor. People with excellent moral character and profound knowledge are appointed as senior officials, and the government and counties can eliminate subordinate officials. In addition, there are other ways to choose officials, such as the system of appointing children of senior officials as officials, and various forms such as lang election, official study and official appointment. During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the system of selecting officials was based on the nine-product system. Jiupinye 1 Normalization system is also called Jiupinguan Law, that is, officials of all sizes are set up in each county, and talents are recommended according to their family background and moral integrity. There are nine levels of talents: up, up, up, middle, down, up, down, down. Because the system of Jiupin Zheng Zhi attaches great importance to family background, there has been a situation of "no poverty for the top grade, no gentry for the bottom grade", which has become a tool of aristocratic monopoly power.
(3) Imperial examination system. The imperial examination system was founded in the Sui Dynasty and was very complete in the Tang Dynasty. There are two main types: comprehensive department and system department. Regular subjects include Scholar, Jinshi, Mingjing, Faming, Ziming, Shu Ming, One History and Three History, among which Mingjing and Jinshi are the most important. In the Ming Dynasty, Confucian classics such as Book of Rites, Biography of Zuo's Family in the Spring and Autumn Period, Poems, Rites of Zhou, The Analects of Confucius and The Book of Filial Piety were generally examined in the Third National Examination. Scholars test classics first, then poetry and fu, and finally time and strategy. The examination shall be presided over by the Ritual Department, and those who pass the examination shall attend the interview hosted by the Official Department. The interview content includes four aspects: body, speech, writing and judgment. In order to ensure the fairness and objectivity of the examination, measures such as sealing, copying and pasting the name of the examination paper have also been taken. The Song Dynasty adopted the basic national policy of valuing literature over martial arts, so it attached great importance to the imperial examination system, expanded the admission quota and established the palace examination system. The imperial examination system in Ming and Qing dynasties further developed. The examination is subdivided into three levels, namely, provincial examination, general examination and palace examination, which are held every three years. Compared with the hereditary system and recommendation system, the imperial examination system has extremely important progressive significance. First of all, the form has initially achieved equal competition, providing a way for a large number of lower-class people to become officials through their own efforts; Secondly, the quality of government officials has been improved and the centralized rule of the central government has been strengthened. However, since the Ming and Qing Dynasties, due to the rigid content of the examination and the rigid format of the article, it was abolished in the late Qing Dynasty.
2. The rank and salary system of civil servants.
The official positions of the ancient officials in China represent their duties and powers, and the official ranks indicate their ranks. The rank system of the Zhou Dynasty was a "nine-life system", that is, the rank status of governors and officials was determined by nine ranks. The millet system was implemented in Qin and Han dynasties. During the Wei and Jin Dynasties, officials were divided by grade, stone, class and life, and gradually formed an official system with nine grades and eighteen grades. Officials in the Sui Dynasty were divided into nine categories, each of which was divided into positive and subordinate levels, and * * * had eighteen levels. In addition, there is chivalry. For example, "Zhou Li Wang Zhi" records that "the title system of the king consists of male, Hou, Bo, Zi, Gong, etc.", and Shang Yang of the State of Qin formulated the twentieth knighthood system. Qin and Han dynasties inherited the system of twenty military titles, but it changed slightly. The Tang Dynasty implemented the system of five products and nine products. In the Ming Dynasty, the royal family conferred two titles on the prince and the county king, and there were three titles for meritorious service: male, male and male. Heroes in the Qing Dynasty were knighted in twenty-seven grades.
Wages are the economic remuneration of officials and are paid according to grades. "Zhou Li Wang Zhi" said: "Be an official, and then honor; Location, and then Lu Zhi. " From the Western Zhou Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty, the salary system was mainly in kind. Before the Qin Dynasty, the salaries of officials were mainly fiefs and fields. In the Han dynasty, food was the main food, and salaries were paid on a monthly basis with welcome as the unit. The salary of officials in Tang Dynasty consists of three parts: annual salary, monthly salary and professional field, and the salary system in kind, currency and land is implemented. Officials in the Song Dynasty were well paid, and their salaries were mainly in money. In addition to the monthly salary, officials also pay in kind and land, such as Lu Su and Zhitian, and allowances, such as "food and clothing", "meals", "coupons" and "tea and soup money". The salaries of officials in the Ming Dynasty were in meters, converted into notes, money, cloth and silver, and distributed to officials. The salaries of officials in the Qing dynasty were mainly silver, with silver and rice.
3, civil service assessment and reward and punishment system.
The system of assessment, reward and punishment has a long history. Legend has it that "three-year performance appraisal, three exams" in the Yao and Shun era. During the Western Zhou Dynasty, there were two main ways to assess officials: "patrolling hunting" and "reporting on work". From the Warring States to the Sui Dynasty, the main form of rewards and punishments for officials to take exams was "going up", that is, at the end of the year, lower-level officials reported their work to higher-level officials for one year. During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the official department set up a special examination department to take charge of the examination of officials. In the Tang Dynasty, the assessment criteria for officials were "four good" and "twenty-seven excellent". The "four virtues" are as follows: "On the one hand, virtue and righteousness are well known; On the other hand, it is clear and prudent; On the other hand, it is fair and just; On the other hand, it is "diligent but not strict". The 27th National Congress stipulated the working standards of different administrative responsibilities. There are two forms of civil service examination in Ming Dynasty: full examination and investigation. The examination is a comprehensive survey of the situation of officials since they took office. The results are divided into competent, average and incompetent. Inspection is also called "big plan", and the projects include greed, coldness, impetuousness, backwardness, old age, illness, attack and perseverance. In the Qing Dynasty, the assessment of Beijing officials was "Beijing inspection", and the assessment of foreign officials was "a big plan". There are six ways to correct the assessment, that is, unwilling and weak, dismissal; Impetuous and incompetent people fall out of tune; Those old and sick people should stop. The rewards and punishments of Qing officials were also graded. Such as promotion, promotion, discussion, salary increase, top band, shadow nephew, flag entry, graphic purple pavilion and so on; Mitigating punishment includes salary reduction, demotion and retention, demotion and transfer, dismissal and retention, dismissal, removal of the shrine, giving a bad name, giving a death sentence and so on.