1. Literature is one of the disciplines of social science, and it is the upper-level knowledge of the society alongside philosophy, religion, law and politics, serving the social economy.
2、
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Literature originated from human thinking activities. Oral literature first appeared, usually combined with music to form lyric poems that can be sung. The earliest written documents are China's The Book of Songs, Indian Ramayana and ancient Greek Ilion Ji. The classification of European traditional literature theory divides literature into three categories: poetry, prose and drama. China's works written in words in the pre-Qin period were collectively referred to as literature, and literary works were listed separately only after Wei and Jin Dynasties. Modern literature is usually divided into four categories: poetry, novel, prose and drama.
3. Literature is a subject that expresses social life and psychological activities by words and characters. It belongs to the artistic category of social ideology.
4. Literature is the art of language and writing (literature is composed of language and writing, which opens up the realm of silence) and is an important manifestation of social culture.
5. Literature is a language art and an aesthetic ideology in discourse. [ 1]
Due to the progress of publishing and education and the all-round development of society, it has lost its monopoly position and become a branch of popular culture. The so-called serious literature is different from popular literature or popular literature.
A discipline in colleges and universities, including journalism and communication, Chinese language and philology, etc.
The meaning of editing this paragraph ① One of social ideologies. In ancient times, all books and documents written in words were collectively called documents. Modern art refers to the art of shaping images with language to reflect social life and express thoughts and feelings, so it is also called "language art". During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties in China, literature was divided into two categories: verse and prose. Modern literature is usually divided into poetry, prose, novel, drama, film and television literature and other genres. Various schools have various styles.
② One of the four families of Confucius. Advanced Analects of Confucius: "Literature, Ziyou, Xia Zi."
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Xing Bingshu: "If the article has knowledge, there is a child tour and Xia Zi." He also teaches subjects for aristocratic children. Song Dynasty's Biography of Lei Cizong: "The world attaches importance to art, making Danyang Yin Lixuan learn, the prince cited He Chengtian to make history, and Situ made literature from the army."
(3) refers to the cultivation of the word chapter. Yuan Jie's "Da Tang Fu": "Who is old when the text is not old?"
(4) official name. The Han dynasty was placed in the state, county and kingdom, or "literary history" or "literary history", which was initiated by later tutors. In order to select talents, Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty specially set up the subject of "Xianwen", and all counties recommended talents to take the exam in Beijing. Those who are recommended are called "sages". "Virtue" refers to a person with good moral character and noble morality; "Wen" refers to people who are proficient in Confucian classics. After Wei and Jin Dynasties, it became known as "literary engagement". In the Tang Dynasty, the doctor was placed in Zhou Xian County, which was renamed as "Literature" in Dezong, and the prince and the king were also placed as "Literature". Abolished in Ming and Qing dynasties.
Edit this history, China literature and poetry.
The earliest literary genre in China, which originated from the sound of primitive labor, is a kind of literature with rhyme and singing.
Most of the ancient poems are four words, such as The Book of Songs, and most of them are five or seven words after the Eastern Han Dynasty and Wei Dynasty. There were ancient and modern poems in the Tang Dynasty, and new poems in the May 4th Movement.
In ancient China, happy poems were called songs and unhappy poems were called poems. Whether it is harmonious or not, it has a strong musical beauty.
Poetry is divided into ancient poetry, modern poetry and new poetry according to the times; Divided into narrative poems and lyric poems according to their forms of expression; According to the content, it can be divided into four categories: pastoral poetry, landscape poetry, science poetry and object-chanting poetry.
1, ancient poetry
Also known as "ancient poetry" and "ancient style", it refers to the poems before the Tang Dynasty (mainly during the Han and Wei Dynasties) and the imitation of the poems before the Tang Dynasty.
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Works created. It is developed from folk songs, without seeking opposition, level and rhyme freedom. Bai Juyi and Yuan Zhen in the middle Tang Dynasty used Yuefu to create new poems, which still belong to the category of classical poetry.
2. Modern poetry
Compared with classical poetry, a poetic style, also known as "modern poetry" and "metrical poetry", has strict rules on the number, number of words, level and rhyme of sentences. There are two kinds: metrical poems and quatrains.
Step 3: rhythm
A style of modern poetry, divided into five laws and seven methods. There are certain norms and requirements in phonology, level tone, sentence pattern and antithesis. The whole poem consists of eight sentences, which are divided into the first couplet, the parallel couplet, the neck couplet and the tail couplet.
4. quatrains
A style of modern poetry, which is divided into five sections and seven sections and consists of four sentences, is generally considered as a "half-section poem".
5. Chu ci
A poetic genre named after the appearance of the southern Chu region during the Warring States Period, represented by Qu Yuan's Li Sao, is also called "Sao Style".
Features: a large number of fairy tales, full of fantasy and romance; In addition to lyricism, layout methods are widely used; The sentence pattern is relatively plain, and the word "Xi" is widely used.
6. New poetry
Also known as "modern poetry", it refers to the new style poetry produced by China since the May 4th Movement. Formally, it broke the limitation of old-style poetry and adopted a relatively free form and colloquial vernacular, which was convenient for reflecting social life and expressing thoughts and feelings. New poetry requires conciseness, rhyme and general neatness.
7. rhyming poems
It belongs to modern poetry, a literary genre. As the name implies, it generally means that the end of each line of poetry must rhyme, and the poem reads like a ballad. Rhyme here refers to modern rhyme, which belongs to a new style of poetry, similar to the popular rhyme of Fang on the Internet. Debuted after 2000.
8. Singing style
A style of Yuefu folk songs. Song is a general term, boasting about skills and acting skills, which is not strictly different from "singing", "song", "quotation", "sigh" and "tune".
Features: ① There is a fixed tone of words, but most articles have no definite sentences and sentences have no definite words, mainly miscellaneous words, and the language is colloquial, popular and vivid; (2) Rhyme is relatively free in rhythm, and there is no need to talk about level and level; (3) Expression techniques: In addition to metaphor, parallelism is used to elaborate, narrative twists and turns, and people are good at dialogue and detail description to portray characters and shape images.
Second, fu
Originally a literary expression, it was one of the "six meanings" in The Book of Songs, which formed a specific system in the Han Dynasty. Become a style between poetry and prose, paying attention to elaboration, rhetoric, duality and rhyme. It is called "Da Fu" which mainly describes things, and "Fu Xiao" which mainly expresses feelings, which is close to "Wen Fu" in prose.
Different from the "Fu" in today's prose title, it means "praise" and "ode" instead of laying out words.
The ancients called "Ci" and "Fu" "Ci" because they are both flexible in shape and unlimited in length, and the sentences are all four or six sentences.
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Mainly in words, allowing patchwork; In style, everyone pays attention to literary talent and extravagance. The difference between them is that "Ci" uses "Xi" to adjust syllables in the sentence or at the end of the sentence, while "Fu" uses prose sentences, and even the whole poem is mixed with prose sentences that don't rhyme at all.
Third, parallel prose
It is a kind of verse which is mainly composed of two sentences (namely, antithesis and even sentences), pays attention to antithesis and rhythm, and is opposite to prose. The biggest feature is that the full text is composed of antitheses, forming upper and lower antitheses with the same number of words, symmetrical syntactic structure, part of speech and word meaning pairing. Even sentences are usually composed of four words and six words, alternating with each other (four or six words), such as "Teng Jiao, Meng Ci School; Purple electric paste is General Wang's armory.
It began at the end of Han Dynasty, formed in Wei and Jin Dynasties, and prevailed in the Southern and Northern Dynasties. This style was still followed in the early Tang Dynasty until Han and Liu followed suit.
Compared with the ancient prose advocated by Han and Liu, ancient prose emphasizes "potential" and parallel prose emphasizes "rhyme"; Ancient prose is fluent, while parallel prose is implicit; Classical prose stresses simplicity, while parallel prose stresses elegance.
Fourth, writing.
In ancient times, it was a new poetic style suitable for chorus (that is, "lyrics by sound"). Also known as "Quzi Ci", "long and short sentences" and "Yuefu".
Each word has a musical title (Qupai), which specifies the music of the words that can be sung, as well as the number of words, sentences, rhymes, rhymes and so on. Most of them are in segments (segments), and "segments" are also called "times" or "que", which means that the music is sung at one time.
Ci sums up the length of musical tunes, which are divided into minor, middle tune and long tune (slow words).
The embryonic form of Ci existed as early as the Liang Dynasty, which was shaped in the late Tang Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty.
Author: Tian Maoquan
Verb (short for verb) novel
The main style of literary works. By describing the complete story and the specific environment, we can create all kinds of characters and reflect social life in many ways.
China's novels originated from ancient myths and legends, and experienced the development process of Six Dynasties, Tang legends, Song and Yuan scripts, Ming Hui novels and May 4th modern novels.
According to the length of the article, it can be divided into long stories, medium stories and short stories; According to different contents, it can be divided into social novels, fairy tales, historical novels, science novels and detective novels.
1, strange novel
It refers to an old novel about ghosts and gods in China during the Han, Wei and Six Dynasties. Originated from ancient myths and legends. Such as "Looking for God".
2. Anecdotal novels
It is a novel used to describe the wild talk and anecdote of intellectuals who advocated nonsense since Wei and Jin Dynasties.
3. Legendary novels
This is a classic novel with many strange and magical plots. Generally speaking, it refers to the classical Chinese short stories created by people in Tang and Song Dynasties. It is a treasure house for novel and drama writers in Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties to absorb themes. Originated from the Six Dynasties.
4. Story novels
Refers to the original books used by speakers in Song and Yuan Dynasties. Write down the contents of novels and stories in popular language as your own memo or teach others. Later, it became a style of novel, that is to say, story novel. It marks the maturity of China's classical novels.
(fiction)
5. Zhang Hui's novels
A Style of China's Ancient Novels. It is a novel with chapters and narratives developed on the basis of telling history and scripts.
Its characteristic is to summarize the development and conflict of the story in paragraphs, divide it into several chapters, and often use antithesis as the title to reveal the content of this chapter. There is always a poem at the beginning. The first paragraph, bring up the last content, so as to connect this content; At the end of each episode, it usually comes to an abrupt end at the climax of the plot, leaving suspense.
Step 6 condemn novels
In order to expose social ills, whip and condemn feudal officialdom and social ills. Produced before and after the Revolution of 1911.
7. Romance novels
An old novel. Summarize history books and legends and write them in modern spoken English. By telling historical stories
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According to the invention.
Essays on intransitive verbs
In ancient times, prose was generally called prose, which did not rhyme or rearrange couples, including historical masterpieces. Modern prose refers to a literary genre on an equal footing with poetry, novels and plays.
Prose is characterized by a wide range of materials, "scattered in form and gathered in spirit"; Free form and flexible writing; Language is not limited by rhythm, and its expression is implicit and meaningful.
According to the different content and expression, it can be divided into:
Narrative Prose-Prose focusing on recalling people, events, objects and scenes.
Lyric prose-through the narrative description of characters, events or scenery, it achieves the purpose of supporting things, chanting ambitions and containing feelings in things. Symbols are often used to express the author's hidden passion and guide people to remember and associate.
Discussion prose-reasoning is often carried out with the help of the brief description of the case, image description and emotional expression. There is no need for logical reasoning and rigorous argumentation.
1, ancient prose
Prose written in classical Chinese, as opposed to parallel prose. Tang Hanyu opposed the parallel prose style since Wei and Jin Dynasties, and advocated the prose widely used in the pre-Qin and Han Dynasties, which was called ancient prose and later used as the proper name of prose.
2. Commemoration
(1) Inscription: an ancient style carved on a stone tablet to tell the life story of a character.
② Travel Notes: It is a prose genre describing travel experiences.
Miscellaneous notes: It is a genre of ancient Chinese prose, which is based on things, without much discussion, and writes out what you have seen and heard.
(4) Notes: It is a style that records the life stories of ancient people.
⑤ Notes: A short and rich style in ancient times. Meng Qian Bitan.
3. Ancient argumentative writing style
① Original text: the argumentative style of ancient exploration. Yuan Jun (Huang Zongxi)
2 discrimination; This is an ancient way of distinguishing right from wrong.
(3) Storytelling: it is an ancient way to explain the style of things by narrative, discussion or explanation. Ma Shuo and Shi Shuo
④ Theory: the debating style of ancient irrational reasoning. On six countries
4. The ancient ministers presented the throne to the emperor-argumentative style.
(1) Sparse: It is a style in which lieutenants present their opinions to the emperor. Also known as commemoration and remembrance. On accumulation and storage (Jia Yi)
Table 2: Style of stating opinions or things. Chen Qingbiao (Shimi)
(3) Strategy: The way of asking questions in the imperial examination is called strategy question.
(4) Irony: In ancient times, people were euphemistically persuaded to accept the opinions of subordinates by means of metaphor and suggestion. Zou Ji satirized the King of Qi.
5. Preface and Postscript
6. Gift orders
One of the ancient styles was written for farewell. Preface to seeing Ma Sheng off to Dongyang
7. Historical biographies
(1) Chronicle: A kind of biography, which specifically describes the deeds of emperors.
② Family: Mainly narrate the deeds of princes and special people.
Biography: It is used to record the deeds of ordinary officials and ordinary people, and also to record the history of ethnic minorities and other countries.
8. Reportage
The new style in prose is a general term for close-up and literary exchange. It is news, vivid and political to report things that people care about in social life quickly and timely by literary expression. Known as the "light cavalry" on the literary front.
Three iconic works of China's reportage: Bonded Worker, Who is the cutest person and Goldbach's conjecture.
Seven, drama
Comprehensive stage art uses literature, music, dance, art, sculpture, architecture and other artistic means to shape the image of stage art, reveal social contradictions and reflect social life.
In China, drama is the general name of traditional operas, dramas and operas in China. Also often refers to drama. In the west, it refers to drama.
The basic elements of drama are contradiction and conflict.
The language of drama includes dialogue and monologue; Stage description.
The structure of drama: single act and multiple acts.
Classification: according to the types of works, there are tragedies, comedies and dramas; According to the theme, there are historical dramas, dramas and fairy tales.
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Drama; According to the structure, there are one-act dramas and whole dramas.
1, Yuan Zaju
Including Sanqu and Zaju.
1) Sanqu
A new style of poetry that rose in Yuan Dynasty was developed and strengthened on the basis of Jin's "folk songs". There are two kinds of small orders and sets.
"Xiao Ling" is a monotonous song, short and pithy, not as strict in meter as words, and is often used to write lyrical scenery, such as Ma Yuan Zhiyuan's "Qiu Si" [Tianjingsha].
The number of sets is a set composed of more than two pieces according to certain rules, also called "loose sets" and "sets". The whole set must be the same palace tune. The number of episodes can be used to describe more complete plots, deeds or arguments, such as the Return of the Great-Great-Ancestor written by Chen Jing in Yuan and Sui Dynasties.
2) Zaju
It is a comprehensive art including music, singing and dancing. It is divided into three parts: Qu Ci, Bai Bin and Ke Xun.
The lyrics are composed of divertimento in Sanqu, which actors use to sing. Every fold is a solo, and other actors only have dialogue. Coulson is action and expression.
Structure: "four folds and one wedge", and "wedge" is to explain or introduce characters, which is connected with the plot. Folding is the unit of music organization and the natural paragraph of story development.
The roles of Yuan Zaju: "Duan" and "Dan".
The earliest known literary work in western literature is a Sumerian epic by forgotten one in 2700 BC, which describes heroism, friendship, loss and the pursuit of eternal life. Literature with different characteristics in different historical periods. Early works often have religious or teaching purposes. The normative literature of preaching was born. The unusual features of romanticism developed in the Middle Ages. At the same time, the rational era created nationalist epics and philosophical essays. Romanticism emphasizes popular literature and emotional input, and is gradually replaced by realistic and naturalistic literature that pursues truth. In the 20th century, symbolism rose to explore the description and development of roles.
Edit this paragraph to classify the literature of different languages or countries: Asian literature: China literature, Ma Xin literature and Japanese literature.
European literature: English literature, German literature, Greek literature and Russian literature.
American literature: American literature, Latin literature.
(Literature is also divided into ethnic groups)
Comparative literature: Comparative literature refers to cross-cultural and interdisciplinary literary research.
Comparative literature is a kind of literary research, which first requires studying the history, present situation and possibility of communication between people of different cultures and disciplines through literature. It is committed to mutual understanding between different cultures and hopes to have sincere respect and tolerance for each other.
In addition to external, practical and utilitarian values, the editorial value literature of this paragraph also has internal, seemingly useless and utilitarian values, that is, spiritual values.
Spirit has many different definitions. We generally define the concept of spirit in this sense: it is an intentional existence within human beings, an organic unity of many psychological factors of human rationality and sensibility, and a psychological activity process of human beings constantly surpassing themselves and perfecting themselves. Therefore, spiritual value is different from material value, which is internal, ontological and constantly transcending itself. Literary creation is the spiritual activity of literary and art workers, literary works belong to the spiritual products of human beings, and the acceptance and appreciation of literature and art also belong to human spiritual activities. Therefore, the spiritual value of literature and art should be its own most intrinsic and basic value. As Moritz Geiger, an early German phenomenologist, pointed out, "In a work of art, there are certain features that constitute its value, that is, the spiritual value of art, that is, it does not serve a certain purpose, so he can't understand art ... These values are experienced by people as characteristics existing in the work and are included in the work of art."
While performing various "service" duties, art has forgotten what it is, and while we have too many "works of art", we have also lost our "artistic spirit".
Art is not only a tool, but also a "work". But art is essentially a way of life, an attitude towards life, a connotation of life and a belief on which life depends.
Edit the attribute category of this paragraph 1, and divide it into three categories according to the carrier: oral literature, written literature and online literature;
2. According to the author's time, it can be divided into ancient literature, modern literature, modern literature and contemporary literature. Their scope is constantly changing with readers;
3. Divided into: European and American literature, China literature, Japanese literature, Latin American literature, etc.
4, according to the reader is divided into:
A, according to the audience identity/age, there are children's literature, adult literature, etc. ;
B, according to the reader group and content, it is divided into serious literature and popular literature or popular literature, folk literature, minority literature, religious literature, etc.
5. According to the content, it can be divided into historical biography literature, documentary literature, fantasy literature and reportage.
6. According to the genre of expression, it is divided into novels, essays, poems, reportage, scripts, folklore, fables, note novels, unofficial history, fairy tales, couplets and jokes. Others, such as historical biography, philosophy, poetry, parallel prose, essays, literary criticism, movies, computer games (including game consoles) with text plot structure, etc.
7. According to creative ideas, it can be divided into: romantic literature, realistic literature, etc.
The above classification is only a generalization. As an example of classification, it is not a comprehensive classification.
Theory 1, literary theory
First, western literary theory
B, China's literary theory
2. Literary criticism and research
3. Literature history: foreign literature history and China literature history.
4. Literary schools, literary ideas and literary societies.
Learning 1, literary aesthetics
2. Literature and art
3. Literature in the new period of socialism
4. History of literary thought
5. Literary criticism
6. literary history: a. modern literature; B, modern literature
7. Comparative literature
8. Dance literature
9. Derivative literature
Stylistic literary style is a relatively stable overall discourse feature caused by the writer's creative personality and specific discourse situation. Literary style is the concrete integration of subject and object, content and form, and it is a sign that a writer's creation tends to mature and his works reach a higher artistic accomplishment. The style of writers' works is the core and foundation of literary style, but it also includes the connotation of times style, national style, regional style, genre style and so on.
Style is a unique literary phenomenon in the process of literary activities. Literary style mainly refers to the style of writers and works. It is not only a sign of the stability of a writer's unique artistic creativity, but also a reflection of the maturity of his language and style. It is usually regarded as a writer's emblem or fingerprint. Literary style involves not only the writer's creative personality and speech form, but also the times, nationalities and regional cultures.
The genres of literary works are poetry, prose, novel and drama.
A. China's traditional dichotomy
All text genres are divided into two categories: verse and prose.
Basis: the external characteristics of the text are the factors of language form.
This classification is too general, and it does not involve issues such as subject matter and conception, so it is difficult to distinguish literary texts from non-literary texts. It's abandoned now.
Second, the western "dichotomy"
1. Represented by "Dichotomy" in Aristotle's Poetics, he distinguished epic from drama by imitating reality. Because epic imitates reality through language, unlike drama, it is considered as a literary type in a strict sense. As for the language expression of epic, it can be verse or blank prose.
Similarly, the dichotomy, represented by Aristotle, pays more attention to the internal characteristics of the text, such as media means.
Step 2 split
The dichotomy represented by Aristotle made no mention of lyric poetry. When the status of lyric poetry in literature was promoted, dichotomy was replaced by dichotomy.
3. Trigonometry is a method to divide all kinds of literature into narrative, lyric and drama according to the choice of theme, conception and emotional experience of literary works and the expression of shaping images.
Three.
Narrative literature takes events, characters and environmental scenery in the objective world and the virtual world as the theme, takes imitation and fiction as the conception, and takes concrete and vivid narration as the main artistic expression, thus reflecting and expressing the aesthetic grasp of social life by the creative subject. Narration is the basic aesthetic feature of narrative literature. Narrative literature includes novels, epics, narrative poems, story poems, historical biography literature, reportage and so on.
Lyric literature is a literary work with the subjective feelings of the lyric hero as the center, inner feelings and experiences as the way of conception, and direct expression as the main artistic expression, thus showing the creative subject's perception and appreciation of nature, society and life. Lyricity is a prominent aesthetic feature of lyric literature. Lyric literature mainly includes lyric poetry, lyric prose and prose poetry.
Drama literature is a kind of literary work with the theme of contradictions and conflicts in life, the way of simulating and reproducing virtual reality, and the main artistic expression means of characters' own behaviors and lines, thus reflecting the aesthetic grasp of social life by the creative subject.
Four. Quadratic method
1, China's "quadratic method" divides literary texts into four categories: poetry, novel, prose and drama literature. Some add film and television literature on this basis.
China's quartering method is a method to divide literary genres according to the external form of literary texts, taking into account the characteristics of theme selection and image-building, and based on the linguistic characteristics and system length of texts.
2. The four-point method of Canadian poet Frye.
He said: "The central principle of genre is quite simple, and the basis of the differences between Chinese and English in literature seems to be the principle of expression. Words can be performed or spoken in front of the audience; You can also sing it or write it for readers. "
(northrop Frye's Critical Analysis, translated by Chen Hui, Baihua Literature and Art Publishing House, 1998, p. 308).
"Poetry performed in front of an audience is drama; Narrative poems are recited in front of the audience; Singing or chanting with your back to the audience is a lyric poem; The novel should be read quietly. " ([France] David Fontaine's Poetics-A General Theory of Literary Forms, translated by Chen Jing, Tianjin People's Publishing House, 2003, p. 126)
Frye's quartering method and China's popular quartering method are different in argument basis and classification results.
Traditional poetry is a rhythmic literary work. It expresses some strong feelings through the imagination and lyricism of poetry. Poetry is the oldest literary form, and China is one of the most developed countries in the world. From China's earliest poetry collection "The Book of Songs" to the earliest lyric poem "Li Sao". Yuefu in Han Dynasty, metrical poems, ci poems, Yuanqu poems in Tang and Song Dynasties, and new poems since the May 4th Movement. Folk songs of past dynasties. It constitutes the unparalleled great tradition of China's poetry. In contrast, western narrative poetry developed late and combined with drama, and made great achievements. For example, Homer's epic, Dante's Divine Comedy and Shakespeare's plays.
Prose is a literary form without strict rhythm and space restrictions. As opposed to verse. China's prose is developed from the prose of pre-Qin philosophers, and there are famous prose works representing famous writers. Among them, historical prose, prose, recitation and other applied styles have had a far-reaching impact on later generations. China has been the most developed country in prose in the world since ancient times.
Drama is another ancient literary form. Mainly through the dialogue between different roles to express the author's thoughts and feelings. Drama can be used for stage performance and reading.
Novel is a comprehensive literary form with virtual world as its content. Traditionally, prose is the mainstay. Zhuangzi: Decorating novels as a county magistrate. China's novels in the modern sense began with fables in pre-Qin prose, matured in notes of the late Han Dynasty and the Six Dynasties, and then spread to novels represented by four wonderful books and short stories represented by Strange Tales from a Lonely Studio in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Western novels are called novels and prose epics. As a later literary form, novels are associated with myths and legends. Because of its huge capacity, it profoundly and comprehensively reflects the reality and people's thoughts, and has become one of the mainstream literary forms since modern times.