In politics, Confucianism advocates "Government by virtue" and "Government by benevolence"

It also advocates governing the country with etiquette and persuading people with virtue

Calling for the restoration of "Zhou Rites", He also believes that "Zhou Rites" is the ideal way to realize ideal politics.

By the Warring States Period, Confucianism was divided into eight schools, the two most important ones being Mencius and Xunzi.

Confucian benevolence, righteousness, etiquette, wisdom, trust, forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood

Basic content of Confucianism:

Confucius has been engaged in educational activities for a long time throughout his life , has many students, and is known as "three thousand disciples, seven sages". Confucius's ideological and theoretical system covers a wide range. Confucian disciples have different understandings of Confucius's words and thoughts, and it is inevitable that they will have differences. Therefore, after the death of Confucius, Confucius disciples began to gradually divide. In the middle and late period of the Warring States Period in Biechang, while Confucianism became a "prominent school", eight different sects were formed within Confucianism. The theory of the "eight schools" of Confucianism first appeared in the "Xianxue" chapter of "Han Feizi": "Since the death of Confucius, there have been Confucianism of Zi Zhang, Confucianism of Zi Si, Confucianism of the Yan family, Confucianism of the Meng family, and lacquer carving. Among the Confucians of the Zhongliang family, there are Confucians of the Sun family, and there are Confucians of the Lezheng family. "Limited to historical documents, the eight schools of Confucianism in the Warring States period are briefly described as follows: "Zizhang's Confucianism": Zi Zhang's surname is Zhuan Sun. The famous teacher, named Zizhang, was born in Yangcheng, Chenguo (now Huaiyang, Henan Province) in the late Yangqiu period. He was born in 503 BC and the year of his death is unknown. Zi Zhang was a disciple of Confucius in his later years. He was outstanding in his studies and was as famous as Zi Xia and Zi You. He once traveled around the country from Confucius and was besieged between Chen and Cai. He was diligent in learning and inquiring, and often discussed various issues with Confucius. "Lunyu" records that he asked Confucius as many as twenty times. It advocates that "when a scholar sees danger, he will think of righteousness, of sacrifice, of respect, and of mourning" ("Lunwu·Zizhang"), and clearly opposes "not being faithful in words and not being sincere in deeds". "("Lunyu·Zizhang") people and things. Zi Zhang's temperament was a bit extreme. Confucius once criticized him for "exceeding the teacher" and "improving the teacher" ("The Analects of Confucius·Advanced"). However, he was philanthropic and tolerant of others, and made many friends. He believed that a gentleman should "respect the virtuous and tolerate others, praise the good but be reserved" ("Lunwu·Zizhang"). Zizhang remained an official throughout his life. After Confucius died, he lived in the state of Chen, where he accepted apprentices and gave lectures. The disciples passed down from Zizhang later formed "Zizhang's Confucianism", which was listed as the first of the eight schools of Confucianism in the Warring States Period. It is difficult to know the details of the academic or political views of "Zi Zhang's Confucianism". Xunzi once severely criticized "Qian Zhang's Confucianism" in his "Not the Twelve Sons". Calling them "cheap and cowardly", the comment goes like this: "My younger brother Tuo was the best, Shen Tan was the best in his speech, Yu moved while Shun followed, this is the name of Zhang's base Confucianism." This criticism does not seem to list any academic or ideological aspects. The basis is just some words and deeds. It is generally believed that what Xunzi denounced may refer to those who attached themselves to "Zizhang's Confucianism" - the sect's gate wall at the end of the Warring States Period. For example, Hao Yixing, a scholar of the Qing Dynasty, believes that it refers to those people who only resemble Zi Zhang in appearance but not in reality (see the quotation from Zheng Xianqian's "Explanation of the Collection of Xunzi"). Modern scholar Guo Moruo believes that "Zizhang's disciples seem to be closer to the Mohists" based on the characteristics of "Zizhang's Confucianism", which is philanthropic, tolerant of others, and strict with others. He also speculates that "Mo Zhai was influenced by Zizhang" ("Zizhang's Confucianism") Ten Critiques, Critiques of the Eight Schools of Confucianism").

"Zi Si's Confucianism": Zi Si is the grandson of Confucius (see the article "Yu Si" in this book). It is difficult to know what the academic or political views of "Zi Si's Confucianism" are. Xunzi made a slight reduction from a negative perspective in "Fei Twelve Sons", saying: "To sketch out the methods of the previous kings without knowing their lineage is to have great talents and dramatic ambitions, and to have miscellaneous knowledge and knowledge. The case goes back to the old creation theory, which is called the Five Elements. It is secluded but has no explanation, and it is closed and has no explanation. The case is decorated with words and only respectfully said: "This is the words of a true gentleman." The governor Yao Yao didn't know what was wrong, so he accepted it and passed it on." According to the views of most Song Confucians, "Zi Si Zhi Zhi Ru" developed Confucius's doctrine of the mean and incorporated the Confucian moral category of "sincerity" into the spiritual entity. Raising it to the status of the origin of the world has made a significant contribution to the Confucian theory of mind. Many scholars have expressed doubts about the theory of Song Confucianism in modern times.

"Yan's Confucianism": Comprehensive records from the Analects of Confucius, "Historical Records: Biographies of Zhongni's Disciples" and other documents. There are eight disciples of Confucius named Yan. They are: Yan Wuyao, Yan Hui, Yan Xing, Yan Gao, Yan Zu, Yan Zhimu, Yan Kuai, and Yan He. It is difficult to say for sure today which person the “Confucianism of the Yan family” was passed down by. The academic community generally believes that Yan Hui is the representative.

Yan Hui was the most proud disciple of Confucius. The main characteristic of his school was to live in poverty and enjoy the Taoism, and focused on working hard to practice Confucius's thoughts of benevolence. In addition, in "Zhuangzi" 1. The book also mentions Yan Huizhi’s cultivation theories such as “Zuowang” and “Xinzhai”. "Mencius' Confucianism": Academic circles generally believe that "Mengzi's Confucianism" is represented by Mencius. Mencius was the main representative of Confucianism in the middle of the Warring States Period. He developed Confucius's "benevolence" thought and proposed "human nature". The theory of "originally good", as well as the political ideals of "benevolent government" and "kingly way" and the people-oriented thought of "the people are valued and the king is despised" (see the article "Mencius" in this book). Mencius once said: "I have not yet become a disciple of Confucius. , I am a private scholar" ("Mencius: Li Lou Xia"). Sima Qian said in "Historical Records: Biography of Mencius and Xunqing" that he "received his career from Zisi's disciples". Furthermore, Xunzi said in "Not the Twelve Confucians" that "Ziusi sang it, and Mencius harmonized it", so "Meng Ke's Confucianism" should be in the same line as "Zisi's Confucianism". Guo Moruo believes that the "Confucianism of Mencius" is not only a line with "Confucianism of Zisi", but also with "Confucianism of Yuezheng" ("Ten Criticisms: Critique of the Eight Schools of Confucianism").

"The Confucians of the Qidiao family": Based on the records of "The Analects", "Historical Records: Biography of Zhongni's Disciples" and other documents, there are three disciples of Confucius named Qidiao. They are: Qidiao Kai, Qi Diao Duo and Qi Diao Tufu (called Qi Diao Cong in "Confucius' Family Disciples' Interpretation") are generally believed to be representative of Qi Diao Kai as "the Confucian of Qi Diao family" in academic circles. The lacquer carving was opened, and "Hanshu·Yiwenzhi" was used for lacquer carving. According to the textual research of Song Dynasty Confucian Wang Yinglin, "Qi" was the original name. The Han people avoided the taboo of Emperor Jing's name and changed it to "Kai". In the late Spring and Autumn Period, he was born in Lu State (—Cai State). 540 BC, year of death unknown. Qi Diaokai was a disciple of Confucius. Confucius once asked him to be an official. He said that he had no confidence in being an official. Confucius Tingchang expressed his appreciation (see "The Analects of Confucius Gongye Chang"). Qi Diao Kai has unyielding courage. "Han Feizi Xian Xue" says: "The discussion of Qi Diao should not be swayed by color, nor run away with eyes. If you go straight, you will be against Zang Huo. If you go straight, you will be angry with the princes. The Lord of the world thinks it is honest and polite. "In terms of views on human nature, it is advocated that there are good and evil natures. "Lunheng·Ningxing" records: "Mi (Biqi) Zi Jian, Qi Diao Kai, and Gongsun Nizi's disciples have merit; in terms of emotion and nature, they are the same as the princes. (Shishuo) said that there is good and evil in nature. According to these data, modern scholars believe that "Confucians of the Qidiao family" do not want to be officials, but are brave and brave, and they belong to the school of knights among Confucian disciples; This school advocates that human nature has good and evil. Mi Zijian, Gongsun Nizi, Shishuo, etc. are the main members of this school; "Hanshu Yiwenzhi" records "Qi Diaozi", "Mizi", "Shizi", "Gongsun Nizi" shows that they both had writings at that time (all have been lost); in addition, "Mencius Gongsun Chou" said that Beigong Qi, who was good at "cultivating courage", should also belong to the "Confucians of the Qidiao family" (see Guo Moruo's " "Ten Critical Books·Criticism of the Eight Schools of Confucianism", Meng Wentong's "Zhen Wei of Ancient Studies·A Confucian Examination of Qi Diao").

"Zhongliang's Confucianism": Among the eight schools of Confucianism in the Warring States Period, this school cannot be tested. According to Guo Moruo's speculation, the "Confucians of the Zhongliang family" may be the Chen Liang group mentioned in "The Death of Mencius: Teng Wengong". According to "Mencius" records: "Chen Liang, a native of Chu, liked to use the methods of Gong and Zhongni, and studied in the north of China. Scholars in the north were not able to do it before him. He is also a so-called heroic scholar." Chen Liang's His disciples included Chen Xiang, Chen Xin, etc. Later, they appreciated the teachings of Xu Xing, a farmer, and were severely criticized by Mencius. According to Chen Qiyou's speculation, the "Confucianism of Zhongliang" may be Zhongliangzi recorded in "Book of Rites: Tan Gong". - Pai Zhongliangzi, Zheng Xuan of the Eastern Han Dynasty said in the "Book of Rites" that he was from Lu. According to the "Book of Rites Tan Gong Shang": "Zengzi said: The corpse was not decorated, so the curtains were small and thorough. Zhongliangzi said: The couple is in chaos, so the curtains in the hall are small and narrow. "Zhongliang Zi's words are quoted in "The Biography of Mao's Poems", and "Mao's Poems" originated from Zixia, so this school may have both Zeng Shen and Zixia's schools of thought. "Sun's Confucianism": The academic community generally believes that "Sun's Confucianism" is a school represented by Xunzi. Xunzi was the main representative of Confucianism in the late Warring States Period. He inherited Confucius' academic tradition and was one of the main disseminators of Confucian classics; he developed Confucius' political thought. "Etiquette" advocates the governance of both etiquette and law; philosophically, it advocates "the separation of heaven and man" and "using it to control the destiny of heaven"; it believes that "human nature is evil, and those who are good are fake", and emphasizes the importance of acquired learning. "Sun In addition to those disciples who inherited Xunzi's Confucianism, the famous ones are Han Fei and Li Si, but they have broken through the boundaries of their teacher Xunzi's Confucian school and become representatives of the Legalist school. "Le Zheng "Confucianism": This school among the eight schools of Confucianism during the Warring States Period cannot be examined.

According to Guo Moruo's speculation, "Le Zheng's Confucianism" may be Le Zhengke, a disciple of Mencius, so he must belong to the "Mencius' Confucianism" line. According to Chen Qiyou's speculation, "the Confucian of Yue Zheng's family" may be Zeng Zi's disciple Yue Zheng Zichun, so he should pass on Zeng Zi's learning. In short, the eight schools of Confucianism during the Warring States Period were the factions that emerged within Confucianism during the "Hundred Schools of Thought" at that time. They had very different views, but they all considered themselves to represent Confucius's Confucian thought. From the perspective of future historical development, Mencius’s school and Xunzi’s school have a great influence.