Various local supervision plans and measures have been designed and implemented. Even today, there are many reasonable and valuable factors. This article strives for antiquity.
This paper, taking several main forms of local supervision as representatives, respectively investigates and compares their advantages and disadvantages, with a view to summing up some useful experiences and lessons.
1. Appoint the Chief Executive to supervise local officials
Six years before Qin Shihuang unified China, the chief of Qinnan County gave Teng Ci to all counties in the county and issued a proclamation-Yu Shu, which said, "Today,
And it's an example, for those who don't obey the order, extend the law, stress order and integrity. There are (and) kinds of county officials who make more orders to make them successful, so that they can,
Wencheng "[1] class is appraisal; Report it as soon as you hear it. Explain that at that time, Qin was responsible for supervising the orders and procedures of the county-level chief and the people sent by the chief.
When you are an administrative officer, there is no doubt. They may be the first administrative officials with historical records to supervise places. Because it was only implemented in local areas at that time, the shadow
Not loud.
Shortly after the establishment of the Western Jin Dynasty, Emperor Wudi of Jin fully implemented the system of supervising local officials by the chief executive. In June of the fourth year of Qin Dynasty (268), Emperor Wu of Jin Dynasty.
Promulgate the imperial edict, which reads: "The county and the country will stay together and return to the county for three years"; "If long collectors are honest and clean, unlike private collectors who are considerate and earnest, honest and frank will not do anything in name only.
There are also those who are insatiable, flattering, demanding tolerance, not appearing in public, and getting rich in private. I am also willing to observe. It is clear and turbulent, so it is good to fight against it "[2]. Due to the attention of Emperor Wu,
Monitoring activities played a certain role at that time. However, the history of the Western Jin Dynasty is not long. In the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the local supervision system was gradually destroyed. Taining two years (324
In 2008 10, Jiangzhou secretariat said to Zhan Shangshu: "Jiangzhou secretariat was sent by the Han Dynasty, which may not be enough to distinguish the secluded from the bright and publicize politics, so there is embroidery."
Clothes are straight. Today's difficulties and disadvantages are too old. [3] A few words tell the failure of local supervision.
In the Song Dynasty, the supervision of local officials was strengthened and a supervision system was implemented, with the supervision department as the main part and the chief judge as the supplement.
At the beginning of the Northern Song Dynasty, there were fifteen roads, each with a transshipment department to supervise local finance. There is no fixed term for transshipment, which is generally served by courtiers.
Department, procuratorial custody, examination accounts, where officials and people know more articles, designed for stabbing officials "[4]. At this time, the transshipment is still under monitoring.
Officials, but with the strengthening of centralization, "frontier defense, thieves, criminal proceedings, Jingu, and cheap, all entrusted transshipment" is all-encompassing.
General [5], become the local chief executive. Later, prison administration departments were set up in various places, which were responsible for the justice along the way and also for "stabbing officials"
"[6] In addition, they were promoted to Changping Department, in charge of disaster relief, salt and iron, tea and wine, and inspection of official management. The Department of Communications, the Department of Criminal Detention and the Department of Lifting Changping are collectively referred to as prisons.
Division, its officers belong to the supervisory officer at the road level. Tongguan is the governor of the state (county) administrative region established in the early Northern Song Dynasty. Judge Tong is not a representative.
And returned to the official, but with the * * * has the relationship of dealing with government affairs, and has the responsibility of supervision. During the Shaoxing period of the Southern Song Dynasty, the transmission of judgments was intensified.
Heavy, "into the second house, according to the county" [7], the object of supervision is extended to county officials. Supervisors and judges have several positions, just like CEOs, but
They are also responsible for local supervision. They encroached on each other's authority and their relationship was chaotic. The biggest advantage of this is that it is convenient for the emperor to control and drive, but it is practical.
The disadvantages of international work outweigh the advantages. Therefore, the supervision effect of supervisors and judges will not be ideal. This is self-evident and need not be discussed too much.
In the Ming dynasty, local governors were responsible for supervision. Governor is a general term for the governor and the governor, and both have governors before the governor.
The governor system was formed in the 19th year of Yongle in Ming Dynasty (142 1 year) [8]. The governor, who is the chief executive, did not have supervisory power at first, but in Xuande VII.
In August (1432), Ming Di officially ordered local governors to inspect state and county officials together with the censors and provincial judges [9]. This is the governor's
The beginning of supervision. In the fourth year of Jingtai (1453), the governor was also the leader of the imperial city, more like a supervisor of the country [10]. The governor has a one-year term and goes back to Beijing to play. In the thirteenth year of Hongzhi (1500), it was pointed out: "If the governor takes office soon, it is no different from the governor. Why reuse the governor? " ask
The governor has served for a long time, three years in inland provinces and five years in frontier provinces [1 1], forming a formal system. The governor is stationed in the rescue market, and the governor is patrolling.
Become their direct reports. The governor of the Ming Dynasty was born on the basis of the universal implementation of the governor system, and most of the governors were court officials. Although the governor
The system has been formed, but in the late Ming dynasty, the governor was in the transition stage to the local minister. The final completion of this transformation was in the Qing Dynasty. It should be noted that
Whether in the Ming Dynasty or the Qing Dynasty, the supervisory power is only a part of the governor's authority, and with the passage of time, the proportion of this part is decreasing. In other words, during the Ming and Qing Dynasties,
The central government's supervision of local governments is not mainly carried out through governors.
To sum up, it seems that it can be concluded that the supervision of local officials by administrative officials did not receive the expected results in the Jin Dynasty; Supervisors in the Song Dynasty,
The governors of Tongguan and Ming and Qing Dynasties were both part-time governors (the governors of Qing Dynasty had evolved into local administrators in a pure sense) and were interested in local officials.
Monitoring will not have any obvious effect, but it should also be a positive fact. Why does the Chief Executive have little effect on local supervision? As early as 2300 years ago.
Many years ago, in the Warring States period, Shang Yang explained the reasons from the interest relationship between officials. He said: "Although there are many officials, the same thing is the same." husband
If it's the same person, you can't monitor each other. Moreover, the husband's interests are different and the harm is different, so the first king is also for protection. Therefore, to rule, husband and wife can't make friends with each other, but they don't.
People can't avoid hurting their loved ones. It is also true that it is harmonious and different for the officials, and it is also true that the beneficiaries are different. Today's husband is worried and worried, so it is impossible to monitor each other. People who benefit from the same thing are the same. Ruoshi
If a horse can't talk, there is nothing to hide, and evil is beneficial and different. A father can't ask a son, and a gentleman can't ask a minister. The official relationship is favorable.
Is the same as evil. If the husband's affairs are different, the reason why the former king is the end is also. "〔 12〕
According to Shang Yang's theory, administrative officials have the same interests and cannot supervise each other; Only by establishing a restrictive relationship between positions and different interests can we
Let supervision play its role.
Two, the establishment of a fixed, full-time local supervision institutions.
In the Yuan Dynasty, a fixed local supervisory organization formally appeared. In July of the 14th year of Zhiyuan (1277), Kublai Khan built a river on Yangzhou Road (now Yangzhou).
The southbound Yushitai, after several migrations, was finally located on Jiankang Road (later renamed Qing Ji Road, where it is now located) [13]. March 19th year of Zhiyuan (1282)
On the basis of canceling the investigation of the execution department of Uighur, Yuan Ting established the imperial residence in Hexi, but it was abolished in the following year [14] and changed to Yunnan Road seven years later.
Cha Si was appointed as the inspector of various roads in Yunnan, and he was in Zhongqing Road (now Kunming) [15]. In April of the first year of Emperor Chengzong Dade (1297), he was appointed as Yu Shi Cui Y.
Cuckoo suggested that Yunnan Hangtai be moved to Jingzhao, renamed Shaanxi Hangyushitai, and located at Fengyuan Road (governing xi 'an today) [16]. The Yuan Dynasty successively established four.
In the end, only Jiangnan TV and Shaanxi TV were left. The basic organizational structure and formal establishment of the platform are similar to those of the Central Yushitai. Under the platform, in
There are also various departments in various places, which are grass-roots supervisory organizations in the Yuan Dynasty. Yuan Shizu yuan six years (1269), Shandong was first built.
The four departments of the East and West (i.e. the supervision area) [17] have increased year by year since then, and the supervision and punishment department has been changed to the department of prevention of political affairs and integrity [18]. Zhiyuan San
Ten years (1293), designated as 22 roads, belonging to Yushitai and Jiangnan and Shaanxi stations respectively. The 22 anti-corruption departments belong to three departments.
Two of them were transferred to the central censorate. As a result, a situation is formed in which the central censorship institution is the center and the local censorship institution is the focus, covering the whole country and going its own way.
The Department of Anti-corruption and Incorruptible Visit is a strict monitoring network of latitude and longitude, which further improved the monitoring system of feudal society.
In the Ming Dynasty, referring to the method of the Yuan Dynasty, a sentencing supervision department was set up in each province to be in charge of local supervision. According to the inspection department, there are judges, deputy envoys and judges. bright red
When Bird appointed a provincial judge to supervise the local government, he often sent an inspector to supervise the suggestion, which was called an inspector. Ming Hui Dian pointed out: "At the beginning of the country, supervision
The patrol calendar of the censor and the inspector belongs to all prefectures and counties, and their behaviors are opposite. [19] The so-called "stubborn behavior" means that both sides are in the same position.
On the same level, there is a meaning that the two can correct each other. It is known that at this time, provincial judges and supervisory suggestions * * * perform the task of monitoring local governments, that is, in
Local governments implement a dual supervision system.
Why did Zhu Yuanzhang send another place to supervise the censor besides the inspection department? Because he found it difficult to complete the important task of supervising the place by judges alone. this
This view was revealed in a conversation in his later years. He lamented: "I have been in the imperial palace for 30 years, and I have been diligent in seeking talents all night, but my ability is not great."
I am looking forward to it. Ren Fengxian (that is, the supervisor-leader press) has no inspiring wind, which is the fact that the people's shepherd has no comfort. "[20] This became a later patrol suggestion.
The basis for replacing inspectors.
After Hongwu, the power of the inspection department was increased and the chief secretary and the suggestion were dismissed. In the ninth year of Hongzhi (1496), the Ming court announced that,
: "Those officials and instructors who are stationed outside the cloth are allowed to play (patrol) according to their achievements in the second division, state and county." [2 1] That's it, given.
In order to recommend the Chief Secretary and the officials of the Audit Commission, the status of the inspection proposal has also risen accordingly. Therefore, Ming Hui Dian said: "After the trial, judge.
Follow the advice to disintegrate, and suggest to start specializing in patrol. [22] This is not to say that according to the inspection department officials no longer patrol, but that they are only officials who undertake travel.
Since the middle of the Ming Dynasty, the power of the inspection department has been increasing, the power of the censor has been shrinking, and the original supervision system with equal emphasis has been destroyed.
The emergence of local fixed regulatory agencies has its historical background. The Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties in the late feudal society of our country were vast in territory.
Unite the country. Because of its vast territory and numerous nationalities, it is necessary to strengthen the supervision of the central and local governments and the links between the central and local supervision institutions.
Especially prominent. The establishment of a fixed special regulatory agency at the local level is conducive to solving these two problems. Therefore, in the provincial administrative regions,
The establishment of supervision institutions has become an inevitable trend in the development of ancient supervision systems, which has played a positive role in the illegal activities of local officials. but
The advantages and disadvantages of the Ombudsman in his long-term work are obvious. Wang Fuzhi, a scholar at the end of the Ming Dynasty, pointed out that it is beneficial to supervise the country for a long time.
Over time, study people's feelings, learn more about being an official, and don't be eager to reward or suppress the occasional gains and losses; Its harm is also incompatible with the habits of counties and cities.
Corrupt officials can be avoided by Xu Tuxin. "[23] So from the opposite point of view, the Ombudsman is resident on one side." People are familiar with it for a long time, and familiarity is slow. Being slow is a thing.
Not standing "[24]. In the early years of Yongle, disasters occurred in Henan for several years, and local officials were still insatiable, regardless of the lives of the people.
Those who have tasted the words of one person sit idly by and ignore the diseases of the people "[25] is proof.
Needless to say, it is necessary to establish a local supervision institution. The problem is how to avoid the long-term confusion between the Ombudsman and the local administrative officials.
Inextricably linked is how to choose between advantages and disadvantages. If this question has inherent duality, it is difficult to find a satisfactory answer in practice.
Then the more realistic question is, at which level is the local supervisory organization more suitable? In September of the 15th year of Hongwu in Ming Dynasty (1382), Zhu Yuanzhang was arrested as the "Speaker".
Chen Shouling took bribes and perverted the law, followed the example of Confucian scholar Cun Wang, and set up inspection departments at the government, state and county levels, stipulating that everyone
According to the rule of the two counties, "whether the officials are virtuous or not, and whether the military and civilians are sick, they must ask and be correct." This was a huge supervisory team at that time, and Zhu Yuanzhang wanted to pass it.
They go to supervise local officials at the state and county levels. But unexpectedly, these experiments were "ordered" and the government had never heard of them. I don't know if there are facilities. "
How clean is it? ",some people's behavior is more against crime [26]. So after half a year, Zhu Yuanzhang will try to remove everything, and all the prefectures and counties will check.
Except ... This incident is thought-provoking. Why did Zhu Yuanzhang withdraw the trial? Because they failed to perform their duties well; Zhu Yuanzhang, why?
At the same time, stop the inspection department, that is, instead of redistributing a group of people, cancel the supervision institutions in prefectures and counties? Because he thinks the root of the problem
Not because of the 53 1 trial, but because of the split itself. Zhu Yuanzhang may not have a mature rational understanding, but he
This method is not feasible in practice. He left such a question for future generations: Why did the county set up a supervision organization to fail to achieve the expected purpose?
? According to Shang Yang's supervision principle, the supervisor and the supervised must achieve "different benefits and different harms". Relatively speaking, the central Ombudsman and the provincial Ombudsman
The interests of administrative officials are different, and the central inspector is detached in the province, which is convenient for exercising supervision power; Although provincial supervisors and administrative officials at the same level
However, they are detached from the lower-level administrative officials and can play a better role; But as the lowest state in the local administrative system,
County inspector, they have no room for detachment. A prominent feature of China's ancient supervision system is top-down supervision. If a supervisor
An official cannot be expected to work effectively unless he exercises his functions and powers from top to bottom, that is, he does not get rid of the interest relationship with the object of supervision.
This is the reason why the establishment of the inspection department in Fuzhou County failed in the early Ming Dynasty.
The third is the secretariat inspection system characterized by "passing by and turning around"
After Qin Shihuang unified China, "the world is divided into thirty-six counties, and the county is guarded, defended and supervised" [27]. "Prison" means "prison remonstration", also called "prison"
County empire ",responsible for the supervision of local officials. It was once abolished in the early Han Dynasty. In the third year of Emperor Hui of Han Dynasty (192), the county system was resumed.
Send the censor to supervise the capital's three assistants. After Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty ascended the throne, the local supervision system was greatly reformed. In the first year of Yuanfeng (1 10), the imperial history was abolished.
County system [28]. In the fifth year of Yuanfeng (106), a new supervision system was established. He divided the whole country into thirteen monitoring areas, called thirteen provinces (states).
)。 The ministries set up a secretariat, * * * thirteen secretariat, one fake seal, ranking 600 stones, with a term of nine years, and can be promoted to the county chief at the expiration [29]. The Secretariat makes a patrol every August.
In the counties and townships under his command, he toured "Liu Zhou" [30] and reported back to Beijing at the end of the year. The appearance of thirteen Secretariat books
It marks the formal establishment of the local supervision system in Han Dynasty. Although the position of the secretariat is low, it has great responsibilities. There are six supervisory tasks: "First, it is strong."
Zong Hao's right Tian Jia exceeded the system, bullying the weak and controlling the public with violence; Second, 2000 Stone disobeyed the imperial edict, took advantage of the public for private purposes, defended its interests with the imperial edict, and invaded fishing.
Get together as traitors; Three, two thousand stone does not sympathize with suspected prison, wind kills people, anger leads to prison. Music is rewarded with lewdness, disturbing for a while, and stripping Li Yuan, which is a disease of the people.
The stone is cracked and the coat is auspicious; Fourth, it is unfair to choose two thousand stones. If A loves, covers it up and is used to stubbornness; Five, two thousand stone children rely on glory, please entrust the prison;
Six, two thousand stones against the public, powerful attached to the country, accept the goods to cut the law. "[3 1] monitoring object, except the first one is strong Zong Hao right, it
The other five are all chiefs of 2000 stone. That is, middle-level personnel (600 stones) patrol the provinces (2000 stones) and report to the central authorities at any time. This method is
Later, some scholars praised it, saying, "A husband's rank is inferior to his life, and a small official values power. This small and large system means that the internal and external dimensions are also "[32]. Subsidiary bodies of the Secretariat
In the "Central Proposal", Cheng's authority is limited to six articles, and he shall not interfere with local administrative affairs except observing them [33]. Reward the secretariat for ranking lower.
Thick, so many people as a secretariat can do their duty and work boldly. When Emperor Zhaodi was in power, Wei Xiang "moved Yangzhou to make a secretariat, examine the case, protect the county and country, and retreat from many places" [
34] Zhai Jinfang "moved to the north to be a secretariat, and the official was not bothered, and he was very famous" [35]. There are many examples of such records in history. Shisanbu
The secretarial system has undoubtedly played an active role in rectifying local bureaucrats and strengthening centralized rule.
The work of the secretariat is characterized by mobility, that is, the so-called "going around" and patrolling everywhere. This practice can prevent the secretariat from colluding with local officials.
Gas, cut off their interests, to ensure the effectiveness of supervision. Based on this consideration, it is very possible that Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty set up the Thirteen Priests at the beginning.
You can deliberately not arrange for the secretariat to have a fixed treatment place in its supervision area.
In the early Western Han Dynasty, there were always different opinions about whether there was a place to cure the history of stabbing. The traditional view is that there is no place to live. Liu Zhao's Note: Five History of Guan Bai in the Later Han Dynasty.
At the end of filial piety, a secretariat was set up to supervise and correct violations, but there were only six, cars were circulating everywhere, and bandits had a town. "Tang people followed this statement [36]. In the Qing dynasty,
Someone raised an objection. Wang Zu pointed out in the Q&A on Classics and History: "The secretariat of history must be based on the autumnal equinox, so where should I live before the autumnal equinox and how can I extract it from the capital?"
? "Wang Mingsheng's" Seventeen Histories "Volume 16" Curing the History of the Secretariat "further cited the examples of" Nine Meanings of Hanshu "and" Zhuhanbo Biography "[37].
Prove that there is a cure for the Western Han Dynasty secretariat. Wei Hong, the author of Nine Meanings of Hanshu, was born in the early Eastern Han Dynasty. He should be familiar with the system of the Western Han Dynasty, but he only said in general terms that the secretariat of the Han Dynasty was "formal"
Rule ",did not specify the time, so it is not excluded that he refers to the later things; Zhu Bo was born in the late Western Han Dynasty when he was emperor. When he talked about the secretariat, he meant him.
When I went to Jizhou to take office. Here, we should distinguish whether there was a fixed treatment place at the beginning of the establishment of the secretariat of the Western Han Dynasty from two problems that appeared in the late Western Han Dynasty.
Therefore, it seems that similar examples are not enough to show that the Secretariat had a fixed treatment place in the department at the beginning of its establishment. Because, after all, the "national history of Houhan County" is ruled by the secretariat.
All the places are marked with "the rule of secretariat of history", but there is no mention of secretariat of history in Geography of Hanshu. Is this an omission of the author of Hanshu? Good question
It's not that simple. The Book of Bei Tang, Supplement to the Museum of Chaojian, quoted Han as saying: "Thirteen people took the four-year imperial history of Xiaowu Yuanfeng, and the Prime Minister moved to the secretariat.
Play it later. "Here," suggestion "refers to the suggestion of Zhong Cheng instead of the suggestion doctor [38]. This is an important historical material, which shows that thirteen secretariat books may be the first.
It was sent by Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, and he instructed the Prime Minister * * *, that is, the source of the secretariat at that time was the supervisor and political officer of the DPRK. So they are on the branches in autumn.
Can't the Ministry still live in the former government office in Beijing? Although this is only a speculation, it should not be ignored. Since then, thirteen thorns
Judging from the historical nature or the fact that the central government sent local inspectors and the administrative department immediately returned to Beijing to report, it should not be fixed and formal for the administrative department.
The antidote.