1. The exercise system consists of skeleton, osseointegration and skeletal muscle, which plays the role of support, protection and exercise.

2. The surface of long bone is covered with periosteum, and there are nerves and blood vessels in periosteum, which provide nutrition for bone tissue, and red bone marrow has hematopoietic function.

3. The basic structure of bone includes periosteum, bone and bone marrow. Osteoblasts in the periosteum are related to the length and thickness of bone and the repair after fracture. The cells in the epiphyseal cartilage layer are related to the length of the bone.

4. The components of bones include organic matter and inorganic matter. Bone is the largest "calcium bank" of human body, and the organic matter in bone is mainly collagen, which makes bone tough. Inorganic substances make bones hard and elastic.

5. In adolescence, the content of organic matter in bones is more than 1/3, and the content of inorganic matter is less than 2/3. This kind of bone has high elasticity, low hardness and easy deformation. Therefore, teenagers should develop the correct posture of sitting, standing and walking.

6. Joints usually refer to the movable joints between bones. The basic structure of joint includes three parts: articular surface, articular capsule and articular cavity.

7. There are 206 bones in the human body, which are divided into two parts: axial bones and appendages. There are more than 600 skeletal muscles, each of which includes tendons and muscle abdomens.

7. The stimulus that causes skeletal muscle contraction comes from the excitement of nerves. The contraction of skeletal muscle should be coordinated and controlled by the nervous system. Exercise also consumes energy, which comes from the oxidative decomposition of organic matter in muscle cells.

8. An action is usually coordinated by multiple skeletal muscles under the control of the nervous system.

9. Exercise is formed with bones as lever, joints as fulcrum and skeletal muscle contraction as power.

10, swimming is the main way for animals to live in water; On land, there are crawling, walking, running and jumping; The most important thing in the air is flying.

1 1. The planarian stretches under the light, and contracts or turns its head when it is frightened. This is an innate behavior, also known as instinctive behavior. It evolved through heredity and natural selection. Under the cooperation of many times of "light-electricity", at last, as long as the light is given, turbot will shrink its body or turn its head, which is obviously the behavior that turbot learned after many times of "light-electricity" combination. Therefore, this behavior of shrinking the body at the sight of light belongs to acquired learning behavior.

According to the occurrence of animal behavior, it can be divided into innate instinctive behavior and acquired learning behavior. Instinct and learning are two basic ways for animals to adapt to the environment.

13. According to the function of animal behavior, it can be divided into feeding behavior, territorial behavior, aggressive behavior, defensive behavior, reproductive behavior, rhythmic behavior and social behavior.

14, the research methods of animal behavior are: observation and experiment. Fabres's research on insects mainly adopts the observation method, while Shi Li's research on the color perception of bees, Timbergen's research on the feeding behavior of gull chicks and Lawrence's research on the learning behavior of lobular geese mainly adopt the experimental method.

15. Green plants use light energy through chloroplasts to synthesize inorganic substances into organic substances that store energy. Therefore, they are producers in the biosphere, and animals must directly or indirectly feed on green plants and are consumers.

16. Food chains and food webs are formed among various organisms living in a certain natural area through the nutritional connection between eating and being eaten. This interdependent and restrictive relationship between organisms makes the number of various biological populations tend to be balanced, which is conducive to the coordinated development of organisms. The disappearance of organisms in any link of food chain and food web will affect the lives of other organisms and destroy the coordinated development and balance between organisms. Therefore, plants and animals are indispensable members of food chain and food web.

17, animals not only adapt to the environment, but also obtain necessary materials and energy from the environment, and can influence and change the environment.

According to statistics, there are more than 6,300 species of vertebrates in China, accounting for 14% of the total number of animals in the world.

China is rich in animal resources, among which the world-famous giant panda, pronghorn, brown eared pheasant and alligator are all first-class protected animals. Baiji dolphin is a rare and endangered animal in the Yangtze River in China.

20. Animal diversity includes: ① species diversity, ② genetic diversity and ③ ecosystem diversity. The differences between animal species are determined by their respective genetic materials. Therefore, the genetic diversity of animals is the basis of species diversity. The diversity of ecosystem provides different habitats for different kinds of animals.

2 1, animal diversity needs to formulate protection strategies and take protection measures at three levels: ① genetic material, ② species and ③ ecological environment.

22. Protection measures of animal diversity include: ① in-situ protection; ② ex situ conservation; ③ Legal education and management. Among them, local protection is currently the most effective measure.

23. In order to protect giant pandas and golden monkeys, China established Wolong and Wang Lang nature reserves in Sichuan Province.

24. In the biosphere, all the lower organisms with tiny individuals and simple structures are collectively called microorganisms.

25. Some microorganisms, such as cyanobacteria, sulfur bacteria, nitrifying bacteria, etc. , can use light energy or chemical energy to convert inorganic substances into energy-storing organic substances to meet their own needs for nutrients, belonging to producers. Rhizobia can fix nitrogen.

26. The storage of kimchi, yogurt and green feed is based on the principle of fermentation by lactic acid bacteria. Under anaerobic conditions, lactic acid is produced by the decomposition of sugars by lactic acid bacteria.

27. Most microorganisms are unicellular organisms, such as bacteria, cyanobacteria and yeast. A few microorganisms are multicellular organisms, such as various molds and fungi; There are also some microorganisms without cell structure, such as viruses, viroids, prions and so on.

28, some bacteria and fungi can decompose organic matter in litter, animal and plant carcasses and feces. In order to obtain the material and energy necessary for life, this kind of nutrition is called saprophytic. Bacillus subtilis, lactic acid bacteria, molds and mushrooms are saprophytic microorganisms. Saprophytic microorganisms are decomposers of ecosystems and play an irreplaceable role in the material cycle of ecosystems.

29. Some bacteria, fungi and all viruses live in or on other organisms and get necessary substances and energy from these organisms. This nutrient is called parasitism. Bacillus anthracis and pneumococcus are parasitic bacteria. Human tinea capitis, onychomycosis and tinea pedis are all caused by fungal parasitism. All viruses can't live independently and belong to consumers.

30. The male reproductive system includes testis, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicle, prostate, penis and scrotum.

3 1. Female reproductive system is mainly composed of ovary, fallopian tube, uterus and vagina.

32. The main sex organ of a man is the testis. The function of testis is: ① to produce sperm and ② to secrete androgen. Women's ovaries are responsible for producing eggs and secreting estrogen.

33. Sperm and egg cells combine in the fallopian tube to form a fertilized egg, which develops into a fetus in the mother's uterus.

34. In the early stage of fertilized egg division and embryo development, yolk provides nutrition, and in the later stage, the mother supplies oxygen and nutrients through the placenta, and discharges wastes such as carbon dioxide.

35. Adolescence refers to 10-20 years old, and its development has the following characteristics: ① sudden increase in height and weight; ② improvement of brain and visceral function; ③ Mature sexual development.

36. After a girl enters puberty, the monthly uterine bleeding is called menstruation; When a boy enters adolescence, he sometimes discharges semen in his sleep, which is called nocturnal emission.

37. Like locusts, crickets, bedbugs, dragonflies, damselflies, etc. The process of metamorphosis has gone through three stages: fertilized egg, nymph and adult, which is called incomplete metamorphosis; Like silkworms, bees, ants, butterflies, mosquitoes, flies, scarabs and so on. The development process goes through the development period of eggs, larvae, pupae and adults, which is called complete metamorphosis.

38. The bisexual germ cells produced by parents combine to form fertilized eggs, and the reproductive mode of fertilized eggs developing into new individuals is called sexual reproduction, which is characterized by strong vitality of offspring.

39, without the combination of hermaphroditic germ cells, directly by the mother to produce a new individual reproductive mode, called asexual reproduction. Its characteristics are: ① the number of offspring individuals is large; (2) rapid reproduction; ③ The offspring can keep the mother's genetic traits stably.

40. Green flowering plants can use their vegetative organs to reproduce new individuals. This kind of asexual reproduction is called vegetative reproduction. Nutritional reproduction is beneficial to maintain the excellent characters of the female parent and accelerate the reproduction speed. The commonly used methods of artificial nutrition propagation are: ① cuttage (such as grapes), ② grafting (such as peaches) and ③ layering (such as oleander).

4 1. Under aseptic conditions, anthers, ovaries, leaves, stems or roots are inoculated into artificially prepared media, and they can grow and develop into complete plants, which is the plant tissue culture technology. These plant materials inoculated into the culture medium are collectively called explants.

42. The principle and basis of plant tissue culture technology is that every living cell in a plant has the potential ability to re-form a complete plant under appropriate in vitro conditions (cell totipotency).

43. Biological reproduction can be divided into sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction. The types of asexual reproduction are: ① vegetative reproduction ② fission reproduction (such as bacteria) ③ budding reproduction (hydra, yeast) ④ spore reproduction.

44. Embryonic development of animals mainly includes oviparous (such as fish and birds) and viviparous (such as pigs and horses). Frog oviposition, in vitro fertilization, abnormal development; Birds lay eggs and fertilize in vivo;

45. The morphological and physiological characteristics of organisms are called traits in genetics.

46.① The same organism ② The same trait ③ Different expression types are always called relative traits.

47. The phenomenon that parents pass on traits to their offspring is called heredity. Parental characteristics are passed on to offspring through germ cells.

48. In the field of natural science, the science that explores the laws of biological inheritance and variation is genetics.

49. The phenomenon that parents and offspring have differences in traits is called variation.

50. In the nucleus, there is a substance called chromosome, which is easily dyed dark by alkaline dyes. The main components of chromosomes are DNA and protein. DNA is genetic material.

5 1. The basic genetic unit that controls chromosome characteristics is called gene. Genes are DNA fragments with genetic effects.

In somatic cells, chromosomes exist in pairs, and so do genes. Paired genes are located on paired chromosomes.

53. Genes control biological characteristics by directing the synthesis of protein.

54. In a pair of genes, two different genes are called alleles. Among alleles, one gene is dominant, which will cover up the role of another gene and make it not show. This expressible gene is called dominant gene, and the trait it controls is dominant trait; Genes that are not expressed are called recessive genes, and the traits it controls are called recessive traits.

55. In genetics, it refers to the genetic composition of an individual, such as aa, Aa, AA, etc. , called the genotype of this individual; A specific trait of an individual, such as earlobe and earlobe-free, is called the phenotype of the individual.

56, in the process of biological transmission, gametes (germ cells) is the bridge between the next generation, is the only medium to transfer genetic material, genes can be passed down from generation to generation by means of gametes.

57. The sex difference between people is mainly determined by chromosomes. Morphologically, human somatic cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes, of which 22 pairs are the same in both sexes and only one pair is different in both sexes. This pair of chromosomes is the sex chromosome. The first 22 pairs of chromosomes unrelated to sex determination are called autosomes.

58. Germ cells (such as human sperm and egg cells) have half as many chromosomes as somatic cells. (For example, human sperm and egg cells have 23 chromosomes, and somatic cells have 23 pairs, that is, 46 chromosomes). The number of chromosomes of fertilized eggs is equal to that of somatic cells.

59. Phenotypes (such as Ranunculus ternatus leaves) are the result of the interaction between genotypes and environmental conditions.

60. Variation can be divided into genetic variation and non-genetic variation. Environmental changes can cause biological variation. When it leads to genetic material changes, the characteristics of variation can be repeated in future generations. This variation is called heritable variation. When it does not involve the change of genetic material, but directly acts on the result of the metabolic process of organisms, this variation is called non-genetic variation.

6 1. Hereditary diseases are diseases caused by changes in genetic material, and pathogenic genes can be passed down in families through gametes.

62. Genetic diseases seriously endanger human health and reduce the quality of the population. Marriage law prohibits consanguineous marriage (direct blood relatives and collateral blood relatives within three generations). Because the more closely related couples are, the more likely they are to get the same pathogenic genes from their ancestors, and the more likely they are to suffer from genetic diseases.

63. Gene composition determines the performance of an organism. The reason for the inheritance of traits is that the genes controlling traits are passed down from generation to generation with gametes (germ cells).

The results of Pasteur's "Goose-necked flask" experiment convinced people that "living things can only come from living things, and inanimate matter can never spontaneously produce new life at any time", which is called "the theory of life".

65. All living things have gone through a long geological age and gradually developed and changed. The general evolution trend is: from simple to complex, from

From low to high, from aquatic to terrestrial.

66. Archaeopteryx and ancient bird fossils confirm that birds originated from ancient reptiles.

67. For most of the Mesozoic, gymnosperms (especially cycads) and reptiles (dinosaurs and pterosaurs) flourished. Both mammals and birds originated from ancient reptiles. Humans appeared in the new generation.

68. In his book The Origin of Species, the British naturalist Darwin put forward the theory of biological evolution with the theory of natural selection as the core: through fierce competition for survival, the fittest survive and the unsuitable are eliminated. The result is the formation of biodiversity and adaptability.

69. The selection of organisms under artificial conditions is called artificial selection, which is one of the methods to cultivate new varieties of plants and animals.

70. Humans and apes have many similarities, because they have the same ancestor-forest apes. Australopithecus fossils found in Africa are the earliest hominid fossils.

7 1. Modern apes include gibbons, orangutans, gorillas and chimpanzees.

72. Bipedal walking is an important symbol of the boundary between human ancestors and apes.

73. The course of human evolution can be divided into three stages: Australopithecus, Homo habilis, Homo erectus and Homo sapiens. Homo erectus first used fire, and the only remaining species was Homo sapiens.

74. Because the black moth can adapt to the specific environment in the industrial area, its proportion in the population is increasing. It can be seen that the directional choice of environment determines the direction of biological evolution.

75. Different organisms can be classified according to the difference of biological characteristics and the distance of genetic relationship. Following this principle, biologists divide the living things on the earth into seven grades: boundary, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species, among which species is the basic unit of biological classification.

76. In taxonomic units, the larger the unit (such as boundary), the less the same characteristics of organisms; The smaller the unit (such as), the more * * * functions it has.

77. In order to avoid the confusion of biological nomenclature, Linnaeus, a Swedish scientist, founded the binomial method in 1753.

78. According to the differences in morphology, structure, physiology and living habits, plants are divided into different groups, mainly algae, bryophytes, ferns and seed plants. Among them, the lowest plant is algae, and seed plants can be divided into gymnosperms and angiosperms according to whether there is pericarp coating outside the seeds.

79. There are two kinds of animals existing on the earth: one is animals without backbones, which are called invertebrates; One is an animal with a spine, called a vertebrate.

80. Invertebrates can be divided into protozoa, coelenterates, flatworms, linear animals, annelids, mollusks, arthropods and echinoderms. Among them, protozoa are the most primitive, the simplest and the lowest. The whole body is made up of one cell.

Vertebrates can be divided into fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. Mammals are the highest vertebrates.

82. All viruses have similar two-part structures: one is an outer shell composed of protein, and the other is an inner core containing genetic material; Protein not only protects the virus, but also determines the cell types infected by the virus through the nature of protein.

Bacteria have three basic forms: spherical, rod-shaped and spiral. Bacteria are single-celled organisms and have no real nucleus; Fungi are unicellular or multicellular organisms with true nuclei; A virus is an organism without a cellular structure.

84. According to different hosts, viruses can be divided into three categories: animal viruses (exclusively parasitic on human and animal cells), plant viruses (exclusively parasitic on plant cells) and bacterial viruses (exclusively parasitic on bacteria such as T phage).

85. Bacterial cells are composed of cell walls, cell membranes, cytoplasm and other parts, but there is no nucleus formed, and the genetic material is located in a specific area.

86. When lacking oxygen, yeast decomposes glucose and produces alcohol and carbon dioxide. This process is called alcohol fermentation.

87. All seed plants have two basic characteristics: (1) vascular tissues-phloem and xylem; (2) Seeds can be produced and propagated by seeds.

There are more than 800 species of gymnosperms in the world, and there are more than 250 species in China, which is known as the "hometown of gymnosperms".

Angiosperms can be divided into monocotyledonous plants and dicotyledonous plants.

90. The leaves of monocotyledonous plants have many parallel veins, and the petals are 3 or multiples of 3. The leaves of dicotyledonous plants are mostly reticulate veins, and the petals are 4,5 or multiples of 4,5.

9 1, birds and mammals are warm-blooded animals.

92. Arthropods are the most diverse, abundant and widely distributed group in the animal kingdom. Most arthropods are terrestrial, and (1) are covered with hard exoskeletons, which can prevent a large amount of water from evaporating in the body. (2) The body is generally divided into three parts: head, chest and abdomen, and each part of the body can stretch and flex freely; (3) Almost every section has a pair of segmented appendages, which are flexible and powerful; (4) It has a developed brain, sensitive sensory organs and unique respiratory organs, thus fully adapting to life on land.

93, in a certain natural area, all living things and their living environment together constitute an ecosystem.

94. The biosphere is the largest ecosystem on the earth, which includes all living things on the earth and the environment in which these living things live.

95. An ecosystem consists of biological parts and abiotic parts. Organisms include plants, animals, bacteria and fungi; Abiotic environment includes sunlight, temperature, moisture, air and soil. The function of abiotic factors is to provide necessary material and energy for living things.

96. In the ecosystem, green plants can use sunlight, carbon dioxide in the air, water in the soil and inorganic salts to make organic matter, which provides material and energy for the life of various organisms in the ecosystem. Therefore, green plants are producers in the ecosystem.

97. All kinds of animals directly or indirectly feed on green plants and are called consumers in the ecosystem.

98. All kinds of bacteria and fungi can decompose the carcasses of animals and plants, and utilize the organic matter and energy in them. They are decomposers in the ecosystem, as are saprophytes such as earthworms and dung beetles. The decomposition of decomposers transforms the organic matter in the ecosystem into inorganic matter, which can be reused by green plants.

99. In the ecosystem, the chain connection between different organisms due to food relationship is called food chain. Many food chains are intertwined, and the complex network food relationship between organisms is called food web.

106, food chain and food web are the basis of nutritional structure of ecosystem. Organic matter and energy in the ecosystem are transported and transmitted between organisms through the food chain.

100, solar energy is the energy of all living things. In an ecosystem, energy flows in one direction along the food chain. Energy gradually decreases in the process of transmission along each link of the food chain. In this way, the more you get to the back end of the food chain, the less the number of organisms and the less energy you store, thus forming a pyramid-shaped relationship between the number of organisms and energy.

10 1. The round-trip circulation of substances that make up organisms between biological and inorganic environments is the material circulation of ecosystems.

102, the energy flow and material circulation in the ecosystem are carried out through food chains and food webs. Energy flow and material circulation are important functions of ecosystem.

103. After a long-term development process, the ecosystem has gradually formed a relatively stable and balanced state between biological and abiotic substances, energy, and biological and biological, which is the stability of the ecosystem.

104. When the ecosystem changes or is disturbed by external factors, it can overcome the influence of internal changes and external interference factors and maintain a relatively stable and balanced state through self-regulation within the ecosystem.

105, the self-regulation ability of ecosystem is limited. When the external interference factors exceed this limit, the ecosystem will lose its self-regulation ability, leading to the destruction of the stable state.

106, there are two factors that undermine the stability of the ecosystem: one is natural factors, and the other is human factors. Among them, human factors have the greatest impact on the ecosystem. In addition, unreasonable introduction will also lead to the loss of the original stability of the ecosystem.

107. Diseases caused by viruses include: hepatitis B, AIDS, avian influenza, rabies, etc.

108, under certain conditions, the ecosystem is relatively stable, and the stability of the ecosystem is due to its self-regulation ability.

109. Biotechnology is a technology that uses microorganisms, animals and plants to process material raw materials and provide products to serve the society.

1 10, there are many kinds of microorganisms, fast reproduction, strong metabolic ability and diverse metabolic modes.

1 1 1. The main component of biogas is methane, which will not pollute the environment after combustion. Under anaerobic conditions, the process of making organic matter into biogas by microorganisms is called biogas fermentation.

1 12. Transgenic technology is a biotechnology that transfers the gene of one organism into the DNA of another organism.

1 13 Biotechnology mainly includes traditional fermentation technology and modern biotechnology.

1 14, wine contains Aspergillus, Mucor, yeast and other microorganisms. At about 30℃, rice is fermented into rice wine under the action of medicinal liquor. During fermentation, Aspergillus and Mucor convert starch into glucose. In the absence of oxygen, yeast; Convert glucose into alcohol through metabolism.

1 15. When yogurt and kimchi are made, they are all fermented by lactic acid bacteria under anaerobic conditions.