Military system in Xia, Shang and Zhou dynasties

Xia Dynasty was the beginning of China's class society, from which the state and its army came into being, and the military system reflecting the will of the ruling class also appeared. From Shang Dynasty to Western Zhou Dynasty, the military system of slave society was fully developed.

The military system of Xia Dynasty lacked historical materials. According to historical records, Wang Xia was in charge of the army and had "six people" under his command, which may indicate that Wang Xia had different division of labor. At this time, a chariot appeared, and its members were divided into left, right and royal. Combatants also have rewards and punishments. It can be seen that with the emergence of the country and its army, some systems for organizing and managing the army have emerged.

Oracle Bone Inscriptions recorded the military system of Shang Dynasty. For example, Fang Chu and Wang Zizheng's Oracle Bone Inscriptions in Bergen's old Oracle Bone Inscriptions □25) and Wang Zizheng's Oracle Bone Inscriptions (compiled by Nazi Yin Qi □ 1 185) show that Wang Shang is the supreme military commander, and sometimes he goes to war in person. Royal women, such as Fu Hao and Fu Wa, spouses of Wu Ding, King of Shang Dynasty, also led troops to war. Senior military leadership positions are held by aristocratic ministers and state leaders. They rule the people in peacetime and lead the army in wartime. Names such as "Ya", "Ma", "Shooting" and "Garrison" often appear in Oracle Bone Inscriptions, which may indicate that members of the army had different responsibilities at that time. The foot soldiers are noble civilians, and they should practice shooting and defense at ordinary times; And exercise in the form of wild hunting. Oracle Bone Inscriptions, such as Wang Dengren's 5,000-man Expedition to the Earth (Yin Ruins Book 365,438+0,5), recorded that "Wang Dengren" (conscription) was often carried out as needed during the war, and 65,438+0,000, 3,000 or 5,000 people were recruited at one time, and some of them exceeded 65,438+0,000. Slaves often serve as handymen.

In Shang dynasty, all clans or countries had a considerable number of troops except the royal family. Oracle Bone Inscriptions, such as "Wang Qiling's garrison of five clans" (compiled by Nazi □ 1 149) and "ordering the sons to wait for the week with the dogs" ("Continued Book of Yin Ruins □5□2□2"), show that the troops of these clans or parties must obey orders.

The Shang army had soldiers and chariots, and the fighting mode was mainly chariot warfare. Chariots are usually driven by two horses. There are three soldiers in the chariot. One of them drives, one on the left holds a bow, and the other on the right holds a bow. There are several people in the car. There has been a record of "pace" in Oracle Bone Inscriptions, which may indicate that there was an independent infantry team at that time. "Wang Zuosan's division is right, middle and left" (edited by Nazi Yin Qi □597) and other Oracle Bone Inscriptions showed that the largest unit of the army at that time was probably the division. Oracle Bone Inscriptions, such as "Hundred Hair and Hundred Hair" (Oracle Bone Inscriptions Collection □5760), "About 300 People" (preface to Yin Ruins □ 312) and "Three Hundred Hair from the Tomb" (Yi Bian of Yin Ruins □46 15), show that the army at that time,

According to archaeological excavations and Oracle Bone Inscriptions's records, the weapons and equipment of the Shang army mainly include cars, bows, arrows, bows, spears, knives, axes, cymbals, dry shields, arrowheads, helmets and armour. Among them, bows, spears, knives, axes, arrows and helmets are all made of bronze. A large number of weapons, including 70 bundles of spears, were unearthed from the tomb at Houjiazhuang 1004 in Anyang, Henan Province, indicating that there may be a certain weapon storage system in Shang Dynasty (see figure).

The military system of the Western Zhou Dynasty developed greatly on the basis of following the commercial system. At the beginning of Zhou dynasty, the royal family was powerful, and the military power was concentrated in the hands of Zhou Tianzi. There are official positions such as "Youbang Zhujun, Shi Yu, Situ, Sima, Sikong, Yalu, Shi Shi, commander of thousands and centurion" ("Shangshu □ Pastoral Oath"), but they are still not divided into civil and military positions. Vassal states and some noble ministers also had their own armies, but they generally obeyed the orders of the Zhou Emperor. In the late Western Zhou Dynasty, the royal family declined, and once a war broke out, it often relied on the troops of some vassal States and nobles.

The soldiers of the Western Zhou army were all "China people" (slave owners and civilians in and around the capital), and slaves could only work in military uniforms. Bronze inscriptions contain records of the Sixth Division of the West, the Eighth Division of the Zhou Dynasty and the Eighth Division of the Yin Dynasty (Ding Yu, Piaohu), which indicates that the largest organizational unit of the Western Zhou army is the division. However, "Zhou Li □ Xiaguan" said: "Anyone who builds an army has 2,500 soldiers, Wang Liujun, one big country and three armies, two countries and two armies, a small country and one army, and the army will be appointed. There are 500 teachers among 2000 people, and Shi Shuai is a doctor in China. 500 people are tourists, and all tourists are doctors. Everyone is a pawn, and every pawn is a staff sergeant. Twenty-five people are two, and Sima is a sergeant. Five people are friends and each has his own strengths. " There is no such record in ancient books such as bronze inscriptions, so it can be inferred that there may be no military organizational system in the Western Zhou Dynasty, and it is difficult to have such a formal organizational system.

The main arms of the Western Zhou army were chariots. Chariots are usually driven by four horses. There are three soldiers in the car, and there are disciples with them, generally 12. Go, go, go. Weapons are still made of bronze, but they are more developed than Shang Dynasty. There are halberds with both spear and spear functions, and there are also short swords that can be stabbed and split to facilitate melee. Armor and dry shield are made of leather and decorated with bronze foam, which is lighter and more protective. The war horse is also equipped with armor. It also stipulates that there are measures to inspect weapons and equipment before the war. Fighting has always been commanded by flags and drums, requiring orderly teams, coordinated offensive and defensive, and unity of advance and retreat. Be careful not to kill and plunder easily. The establishment and implementation of these systems not only played an important role in establishing a powerful military force in the Western Zhou Dynasty, but also had a far-reaching impact on the military systems of later generations.

Military system in Spring and Autumn Period

During the Spring and Autumn Period in China (770-476 BC), slavery gradually disintegrated, feudalism gradually rose, and the military system also changed.

With the decline of the Zhou royal family and the strengthening of the power of some governors and doctors, "rites and music" gradually changed from emperor to vassal and doctor (The Analects of Confucius □ Ji). Almost all major wars are fought by armies of different countries. Several vassal States successively became the overlord of the Central Plains, giving orders on behalf of the emperor.

The armies of vassal states are mainly composed of government troops and clan troops. Most of the government troops were established when the governors of the Western Zhou Dynasty were founded. The main members are "China" taxis and farmers. Scholars take martial arts and fighting as their main duties and serve as soldiers in combat; Agriculture is Shu Ren. Except for the old, the weak, the sick and the disabled, all adult men have to receive military training, work in agriculture for three seasons, give lectures on martial arts for one season, and exercise once every three years. In the event of a war, always obey the dispatch and act as a pawn (infantry). The length of service depends on the length of the war. Slaves are generally not qualified to serve as soldiers and disciples, and can only work in military uniforms. At this time, Dr. Qing's influence developed rapidly, and they also established an army in their own fief, that is, the garrison, which was mainly composed of taxis and farmers in and around the fief. In addition, in some big cities, there are "Yi Jia", some of which belong to the monarch and some belong to Doctor Qing, which is a supplement to the official army and clan army.

The main mode of combat is chariot warfare, and chariots are the main arms. The power of vassal states is often measured by the number of chariots (see ancient chariots in China). In the early period, the vassal state was generally not more than 1000 times, so-called "a thousand times country"; Generally, Dr. Green doesn't have more than 100 times, so-called "home of a hundred times". In the later period, with the development of economy and the increase of population, there were 5000 ~ 6000 times in Jin State and Chu State, 2000 ~ 3000 times in Qi State and Qin State, and there were also nearly 1000 times of high officials. Each chariot is driven by four horses and generally equipped with 10 soldiers (including three people on board) and 20 disciples. After the mid-Spring and Autumn Period, the followers of various vassal states increased to varying degrees. Some vassal States and border minority countries have also established infantry independent of chariots. In 7 19 BC, Lu, Song, Chen, Cai, Wei and other countries defeated Zheng, which was the earliest record of the use of infantry by the vassal States of the Central Plains. In 54 1 year BC, the Jin army fought Tijen. Because Tijen used infantry, General Jin "destroyed the vehicle as a line, and five times became three or five" (Zuo Zhuan □ Zhao Gongyuan), that is, temporarily canceled the chariot establishment and reorganized the military achievements on the five-riding chariot into three or five infantry. This is a typical example of the Central Plains vassal states changing their chariots into infantry. There are sailors of a certain scale in southern countries such as Chu, Wu and Yue, which are mostly used in inland rivers and lakes, and sometimes go to sea to fight.

The organizational structure of the armies of different vassal states is different. According to "Guoyu □ Qiyu", when Guan Zhong of the State of Qi reformed, it was stipulated that there were five Qi troops, ten (50) were small Rong, four small Rong (200) were one soldier, ten soldiers (2,000) were one brigade, and five brigades (654.38 million) were one army. According to Zuo Zhuan, the Jin army consists of five, two, single, brigade, division and army. Chu's chariots are "wide", while Jin's and Zheng's chariots are "partial" and other different organizations. In peacetime, "Sima" is responsible for supplying grain and grass materials to the army. In wartime, foot soldiers usually have to carry food rations with them for several days, which is called "food package" and have accompanying vehicles for replenishment. In a city or vassal state, it is supplied by the city or the host country.

After the mid-Spring and Autumn Period, with the development of social productive forces and the evolution of social system, the military system has further changed. The main manifestations are as follows: Jin, Lu, Zheng, Chu and other countries have successively reformed the farmland system, such as "being a state soldier", "being a mound armor", "being a mound fu" and "repairing fu according to the amount" (Zuo Chuannuogong fifteen years, A.D. year, and Xiang Gong twenty-five years), which expanded the sources of military service and military fu; Slaves were allowed to join the army as soldiers, and the system of "China people" joining the army gradually evolved into a county conscription system; The status of chariots is gradually declining, and the status of infantry is gradually rising; Military power developed in the direction of centralization, and civil and military began to be graded. However, some of these changes have just begun, and some just show some signs. Major changes in the military system were completed in the Warring States period.

Military system of warring States period

During the Warring States Period in China (475 BC-22 BC1year), the feudal economy developed rapidly, and the monarchs of the vassal states representing the interests of the emerging landlord class competed for political reform to strengthen their military system.

The vassal States established a unified army, and the monarch mastered the power to recruit and dispatch troops, and implemented the system of "tiger symbol" to send troops. The "tiger symbol" is shaped like a tiger, generally made of copper, divided into two halves, and has inscriptions. During the Warring States period, the inscription on the "tiger symbol" given by the monarch of Qin State to Du County (now the suburb of An, Shaanxi Province) stipulated that the right half belonged to the monarch and the left half to Du. Anyone who recruits more than 50 soldiers must see the Jun symbol. But if there is a bonfire alarm, you can take action without "meeting the monarch". Under the monarch, there are full-time military attaché s such as generals (Chu called Zhu), and the civil and military personnel have clearly divided their work.

The vassal States mainly implemented the county conscription system, and farmers were the main targets of conscription. County magistrate and county magistrate have the right to recruit men of the county and county age, and can lead them to war. 16 or 17-year-old men are "Fu Ji" (or "Fu"), that is, they are registered and then enlisted at any time according to the needs of the country until they are 60 years old. According to the bamboo slips of Qin tomb in Shuihudi, the owner of the tomb is Afuji, 17 years old. Joined the army in the second year, returned to his hometown after the war, and was enlisted again. In addition to the conscription system, countries also implement the conscription system. Recruited soldiers, after strict examination and selection, fill the backbone of the army and the guards of the monarch. For example, when taking an examination of Woods, Wei asked that "one of the three genera of clothes is one of the twelve crossbows, with 50 negative arrows, one of which is a sword in the crown, and it takes three days to eat, and a hundred miles in the day" (Xunzi □ Bing Yi). Qi's "martial arts" and Qin's "fast men" were also recruited through strict examination and selection methods. All successful candidates should receive long-term specialized training and enjoy relatively generous treatment.

Infantry is the main arms, cavalry and naval divisions have also developed rapidly, while the status of chariots has declined. Infantry is commonly known as "armored force". "The Warring States Policy" and other documents have records of "hundreds of thousands of armour" and "millions of armour", which shows that the scale of infantry is very large. With the great development of cavalry, a country of "riding ten thousand horses" appeared. King Zhao Wuling's "Khufu Riding and Shooting" is a typical example of the reform of the old system and the development of cavalry in the vassal States of the Central Plains. The more developed captain is Chu and so on. The scale of Qin's shipmasters is also considerable. According to Records of the Historian, Qin "carried fifty people in a single boat in March, with food, and floated in the water for more than 300 miles a day".

Military organizations are often combined with resident organizations. The residents in counties and counties are mostly five ethnic groups, so why are there ten ethnic groups, that is, the system of "five families"? Above Wu Shi, Qin has Li and Xiang, and Sanjin has Lian and Lu. The organization of the army is adapted to it. According to the Book of Shang Jun, in China, there are five people who are a Wu, ten people who are a stone, fifty people who are captains, one hundred people who are generals, and five hundred people who are five hundred masters. According to Liao Weizi-Wu Lingzhi, Wei Jun is above Oh, with 50 people as one genus and 100 people as one Lu.

Among weapons, sharp steel weapons such as swords, halberds, knives, spears and daggers have developed rapidly, and strong bows and crossbows are widely used. The vassal States generally set up "treasuries" (that is, arsenals) to be responsible for the manufacture of weapons, and some of them are also responsible for checking the quality and quantity of weapons reported. Each vassal state paid attention to rewarding the meritorious military service and establishing the meritorious military service system. For example, during Shang Yang's political reform in Qin State, there were 20 "knighthood systems", which stipulated that a combatant, regardless of his family background, could be promoted to knight as long as he killed the enemy. On the other hand, if there is no meritorious military service, the nobility cannot be promoted.

The change of military system in the Warring States period was caused by the development of social productive forces, the change of production relations, the expansion of war scale and the improvement of weapons quality. This change not only adapted to the needs of the emerging landlord class, but also laid the foundation for the establishment and development of the military system in Qin and Han Dynasties.

Writing materials daquan [all reproduced] Chapter 35

Military system in Qin and Han dynasties

The Qin Dynasty (2265438 BC+0 ~ 206 BC) was the first unified and centralized feudal country in the history of China. Its military system was formed and developed on the basis of Shang Yang's political reform in the Warring States period. From 206 BC to 220 AD, the Han Dynasty inherited the Qin system and made new progress.

Military System In order to consolidate and strengthen centralization, the Qin and Han Dynasties established a unified national army and put it under the strict control of the emperor. The official in charge of the national military and political affairs, commander-in-chief of Qin Wei, commander-in-chief of Bill Han, was renamed Fu when Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty. In wartime, temporary generals were appointed to take charge of the army. There were generals in Qin, and there were generals all around. The highest rank in the Han Dynasty was general, followed by generals in title of generals in ancient times, generals in chariot riding, generals in Wei, and generals around. When generals go out to war, they often set up shogunate as a staff body. In the county, county commandant, county commandant, assistant county magistrate and county magistrate are in charge of military affairs. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhou Mu was appointed as the chief executive and military officer of the county.

The army can be divided into three parts: capital soldiers, local soldiers and border guards. Soldiers in the capital are mainly composed of Langguan, Guards and Station Troops guarding the capital. Lang Guan is under Lang's command, the Guards are under Wei Wei's command, and Wei Wei is responsible for the guards inside and outside the palace. The garrison responsible for guarding the capital is led by a lieutenant. The soldiers in the capital of Han Dynasty mainly included the Southern Army and the Northern Army. The station troops led by the lieutenant are stationed in the north of Weiyang Palace, which is called the Northern Army. Wei Wei, by contrast, commanded the Confederate army. Most of the Confederate soldiers were transferred from Neixian, while the Union soldiers were mainly transferred from Jingfu, and they all rotated once a year. During Liang Wudi's reign, great reforms were carried out to the soldiers in the capital, mainly to streamline the South Army and strengthen the North Army. There are 20,000 confederate troops, half of which are missing. In addition to Zhongji, the northern army stationed troops and added chariots, infantry, Yue, Chang Shui, Hu, She Yin and Samurai, which were divided into eight factions and stationed in Chang 'an and its vicinity. They usually guard the capital, and the emperor sends personnel to supervise it. One or all of them went out with the general in wartime. At the same time, the lieutenant was renamed as Zhi Jinwu, who was not in charge of the northern army, but was only responsible for commanding the leader and patrolling the capital. In addition, the corps commander was changed to Guang Luxun, the number of corps officers was expanded, and the troops of Qimen and Yulin were increased. In the Eastern Han Dynasty, the officers and men of the capital followed the Western Han Dynasty, slightly merged and merged the eight schools of the Northern Army into five battalions, and finally placed the Northern Army under the supervision and leadership of eunuchs.

Local soldiers are placed in counties, usually assisted by county chiefs (also known as a captain), who maintain local public order at ordinary times and listen to the central command in wartime. The recruitment of local soldiers should be based on the emperor's "tiger symbol". The Western Han Dynasty once implemented the enfeoffment system, and the enfeoffment country and the Marquis country each had their own army. Soldiers in the kingdom are led by lieutenants, and soldiers in Marquis countries are subordinate to counties. During the reign of Emperor Guangwu of the Eastern Han Dynasty, in order to strengthen centralization, the county magistrate was revoked, and then the local soldiers were ordered to be withdrawn. From then on, in case of war, soldiers in the capital are often sent to the battlefield, or recruited temporarily, or recruited from counties as needed.

Border soldiers are mainly responsible for the garrison in border counties, under the command of the county chief and under the jurisdiction of a surname. In order to enrich the frontier defense, the Han dynasty once immigrated to the real frontier and settled fields in parallel. When Liang Wudi began to open up wasteland, the number of soldiers who opened up wasteland reached hundreds of thousands at most, which was an important part of frontier troops. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the border army system was destroyed, and troops were stationed for defense by setting up camps and docks.

The army consists of material officers (infantry), knights (cavalry), ships (sailors), light vehicles (chariots) and other arms. Generally speaking, the counties in the plains weave more knights and light cars, the counties in the mountains weave more timber officials, and the counties along the river and the coast weave more boats. The Terracotta Warriors and Horses unearthed near the Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor are vivid displays of the huge formation of mixed arms, such as foot, bicycle and so on. By the Han Dynasty, chariots were gradually eliminated. According to the Records of the Later Han Dynasty □ Guan Bai, the army in the Han Dynasty was organized as a "five generals' barracks", with a captain in command, "Song has a subordinate, Song has an army waiting for one person" and "Song has a chariot and a conductor has one person". However, according to the Han bamboo slips unearthed in Shangsunjiazhai and Juyan in Datong County, Qinghai Province, some of them are left and right, and the music is divided into left and right songs or before and after songs, and there are officials (left and right officials), teams (before and after teams) and fifteen under the department and music. The different records of the lower and lower ranks of the Han army in the above-mentioned documents and cultural relics are probably due to the different establishment of different regions or armies.

Military service system The Qin Dynasty followed the conscription system in counties and counties during the Warring States Period. According to the bamboo slips of the Qin tomb in Shuihudi, the male at the age of 17 is "Fu Ji", who can be enlisted at any time according to the needs of war, and can not be exempted from service until he is 60 years old. The military service system in Han dynasty has undergone several changes. According to Hanshu, this man was a 20-year-old Fu Ji, and since then he has served hard labor for one month every year, which is called "more death". Military service began after the age of 23. The service period is generally 2 years. One year in the county is called a "regular pawn", and the other year in the border counties or the capital is called a "garrison pawn" or "guardian pawn". There is also an opinion that these two years of military service are collectively referred to as "regular soldiers." In case of war, you must be drafted into the army at any time, and you can not be exempted from service until you are 56 years old. During the Qin and Han Dynasties, criminals or disciples were often demoted to serve as soldiers, which was called "guarding soldiers". In addition to the conscription system in the Western Han Dynasty, the conscription system was also implemented, and the eight schools established by Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty were mainly for conscription. After the strike of the county soldiers in the Eastern Han Dynasty, the conscription system gradually declined, so it also relied on conscription. At the end of the year, state and county officials cultivated their own power by recruiting troops, which led to a separatist situation.

Military training system The military training system in the Qin Dynasty was very strict. According to the Qin law, archers can't hit the crossbow, charioteers can't drive, the worst knights and horses in the grade test will be punished, and officials who participate in supervision and training and those who are responsible for raising funds will also be punished. In addition to practicing shooting, riding and fighting, the western Han army also taught reading every autumn, also known as "various exams", and rewarded and punished them according to their merits and demerits. Border counties often have "riding ten thousand horses, blocking obstacles and chasing Lu by fire" (Han Jiuyi), which has the nature of actual combat exercises.

The munitions, armor, grain and horses supplied to the army are all provided by the state. This state has a special arsenal. In the Han Dynasty, an examination order was set up to be responsible for the production of weapons, and an armory order was set up to be responsible for the custody and management of weapons. Some counties and countries also have workers and iron officials who are responsible for making instruments and importing them into the capital. The armory in Chang 'an is the largest weapons storage center in China. During the Qin and Han dynasties, armor was standardized and made of metal, and its styles were different because of different arms and positions. The Qin Dynasty set up Taicang in the capital and Aocang in Xingyang to store a large amount of grain, which was supplied by special officials in wartime. The Han dynasty also settled the field to solve the supply of rations. During the Qin and Han dynasties, cavalry was widely used, and horses were becoming the major policy of the country. The Qin Dynasty enacted the Law on Stables and Gardens, which stipulated the grazing, training and management of horses. In the Han dynasty, while rewarding folk horses, gardens were established in the north and west to raise horses. Jingdi has 36 gardens, 30 thousand officials, slaves and 300 thousand horses. During the period of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, there were more than 400,000 official horses, which created conditions for the development of cavalry and the fight against Xiongnu.

During the Qin and Han dynasties, the army was unified, the military power was highly centralized, the military command and management system was strict, and the military service system was relatively perfect. A large number of land reclamation in the Han Dynasty provided conditions for consolidating the frontier defense and ensuring the supply of troops, which had a far-reaching impact on the development of the military system in China's feudal society.

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