Confucianism, also known as Confucianism, originated in the Spring and Autumn Period of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty and is one of the hundred schools of thought such as Taoism, Mohism, Legalism and Yin and Yang. Since Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, it has become the orthodox thought of China society. If you count from Confucius, it has a history of more than 2500 years. With the change and development of society, Confucianism is constantly changing and developing from content, form to social function. If we make a comprehensive survey of the content, form and social function of Confucianism, some people think that Confucianism has four distinct historical development stages in China.

Edit this pre-Qin primitive Confucianism represented by Confucius, Mencius and Xunzi.

Confucianism was born as a "scholar", and it is its duty to educate and cultivate "scholars" ("gentlemen"). A scholar is also an official. Mencius said: "A scholar's official position is better than a farmer's accomplishment" (Mencius Teng Wengong), which means that a scholar comes out to be an official and serve the society, just as a farmer is engaged in farming, which is his profession. When talking about social division of labor, Xunzi also attributed "scholar" to a kind of "person who knows how to take kindness as an official position" (Xunzi's honor and disgrace). Therefore, from this perspective, primitive Confucianism can also be said to be the theory of training officials for the country and society, and it is the culture of "scholars".

Zi Gong once asked Confucius, "How can I be a scholar?" That is how to be a scholar. Confucius said, "It is a scholar to be ashamed of doing things and make the Quartet live up to your life." (The Analects of Confucius Lutz) This answer not only shows the official identity of a scholar, but also points out the most basic conditions and responsibilities as a scholar: first, to know shame, that is, to regulate one's behavior with moral shame, and second, to "make the four sides live up to your orders", that is, to be able to complete the tasks entrusted by the monarch in talent. The former is a requirement for scholars' moral quality, while the latter is a requirement for scholars' practical ability. The unity of these two aspects is the image of a qualified taxi, that is, a perfect Confucianism. Xunzi wrote an article entitled "The Efficacy of Confucianism", in which he described the image and social function of Confucianism in this way: "A Confucian is politically beautiful in this dynasty and vulgar in the next." "Beauty and custom" should constantly cultivate one's morality, improve moral quality and set an example; "American politics" means "making good use of the world", formulating various etiquette norms and political and legal systems for the society to stabilize social order and the lives of the rich.

Based on the above analysis of the basic social mission of Confucianism, scholars and gentlemen, it can be said that the main contents of primitive Confucianism are all about the moral norms of self-cultivation of scholars and the political principles of governing the country. Moreover, from Confucius, Mencius to Xunzi, all kinds of moral norms and principles of governing the country they put forward are very specific norms and principles practiced in life, rather than general abstract metaphysical principles.

There is a certain reason why people call the study of Confucius "benevolence". Because Confucius regards "benevolence" as the most fundamental moral norm of a gentleman. For example, he said, "A gentleman is not as good as fame? If a gentleman has no final food, he will violate benevolence and will do it again. " ("The Analects of Confucius") There are many comments made by Confucius in response to his disciples' questions about benevolence, all of which are specific norms and principles to follow when conducting actions. For example:

When answering Fan Chi's question about benevolence, someone said, "A benevolent person can be said to be benevolent if he suffers first." There is a saying: "Love" ("Yanyuan").

Answering Yan Yuan's question about benevolence, he said, "Self-denial is benevolence." (Yan Yuan)

When answering Zhong Gong's question about Ren, he said, "When you go out, you will see a distinguished guest, making the people like a big sacrifice. Don't do what you don't want, don't do it in the state, and don't complain at home. " (Yan Yuan)

When answering Sima Niu's question about benevolence, he said, "Benevolence is too much." (Yan Yuan)

Answer Zhang Wenren: "Being able to do five things in the world (courtesy, tolerance, faithfulness, sensitivity and benefit) is benevolence." (Yang Huo)

Another example is: "Clever words make color, fresh and righteous." (Xue Ji and Yang Huo) "Rigid, resolute, wooden, dull and benevolent." ("Xianwen") and Confucius said, "Filial piety is also the foundation of benevolence!" ("learn to learn") and so on. , are all normative principles observed in concrete practice.

The Analects of Confucius also records a lot of Confucius' remarks about answering questions and taking part in politics, which are also very specific normative principles to be observed in practice. For example:

Answering Zi Gong's question about politics, he said: "With enough food and soldiers, the people will believe it." (Yan Yuan)

When Qi Jinggong asked about politics, he said, "Jun Jun, minister, father, son." (Yan Yuan)

He replied to Zhang Wenzheng: "Live tirelessly and do it faithfully." (Yan Yuan)

Ji Kangzi asked about politics, and he said, "A politician is justice. Zi Shuai is right, who dares to be wrong? " Then he said, "Why kill a son for politics? Children want to do good things, and people want to do good things. A gentleman is virtuous, but a villain is virtuous. The wind on the grass must be suppressed. " (Yan Yuan)

When answering Lutz's question about politics, he said, "First of all, be diligent" and "be tireless". (Luz)

When answering Zhong Gong's question about politics, he said, "First, there must be a division, forgive small mistakes and cultivate talents." (Luz)

When answering Ye Gong's question about politics, someone said, "Those who are near are happy, and those who are far away come." Some people say, "Haste makes waste. Haste makes waste, but seeing small profits can't be a big deal. " (Luz)

When answering Zhang's question about politics, he said: "Respect the five beauties and shield the four evils, and you can go into politics." (Yao Yue) and so on.

In addition to further developing Confucius' thought of cultivating oneself by benevolence, Mencius is also famous for preaching the theory of benevolent government, and its content is also very specific. For example: "Benevolence must start from the boundary." The so-called "serious world" means "dividing fields for profit" and "making people produce continuously" (Meng Ziliang). Then there is the content of Zhou Wenwang's "benevolent government", which he often cites as examples, namely: "The tiller in September 1st, the official is the leader of the world, the city is closed to laughing and not levying, the beam can't help but not bury the sinner" (Liang Xia), and "respecting the virtuous and enabling" (Gong Sun ugly business) and so on. Mencius also theoretically explained why benevolent governance is necessary and why benevolent governance is possible. But most of his theoretical explanations are perceptual and intuitive. For example, in his view, because everyone has "compassion", "compassion" and "kindness", the former king also had "compassion", which originated from politics, that is, "benevolent politics", and so on, to demonstrate the basis of benevolent politics. Explain the possibility of benevolent government with the theory that "a benevolent person pushes benevolence by what he loves, not by what he doesn't love" (Dedicated) and "I am old and young" (Hui Liang Wang Shang).

Although the practical norms and principles put forward by Confucius and Mencius in governing the country by self-cultivation are very specific, they also contain strong idealistic elements, that is to say, they place more hope on the consciousness of human nature. Therefore, Confucius strongly emphasized "self-denial and self-respect", "self-cultivation and self-cultivation" (virtuous writing) and "benevolence depends on oneself" Mencius, on the other hand, believed that as long as he constantly expanded his compassion, shame and evil, resignation, right and wrong (for ugly grandchildren) and appeasement (for Gao Zi), people's conscience and virtue could be restored.

Compared with Confucius and Mencius, Xunzi's thought is more realistic. While paying attention to etiquette and moral education, he also emphasized the punishment function of the political and legal system. He believes that human nature is not so beautiful, and following the natural development of human nature will inevitably lead to social chaos. Therefore, it is necessary to guide people's natural nature with courtesy and justice, that is, the so-called "transformation and falsification", in order to meet the public principles and requirements of group society. Therefore, while emphasizing the importance of self-cultivation and moral consciousness, Xunzi emphasized the educational and normative functions of "teacher" and "law". For example, he said: "It is the nature of today's people to be profitable and obedient, so they fight for their lives and resign;" Born with disease and evil, follow it, so thieves are born with loyalty to death; It is appropriate to be born with a desire for eyes and ears and a good sense of sound, so fornication is born with courtesy and righteousness. But from the perspective of human nature, obeying people's feelings will be divorced from competition, suitable for committing chaos and returning to violence. Therefore, there must be a way to learn the law, a way to be polite and righteous, and then out of words, it is in line with the arts and sciences, and it is governed by it. " ("Xunzi's theory of evil nature") also said: "The courtesy, so the body is also; Teacher, so courtesy also. How can you be rude? It is also right to know the ceremony without a teacher. " "So, it is impossible to flirt, there is no teacher without a teacher. Not studying law, but for personal use. For example, color discrimination or blindness, sound discrimination or deafness, chaos or inaction. " ("Xunzi's Self-cultivation")

Similarly, Xunzi's principles of governing the country, such as "distinguishing groups", "living in groups" and "the way of unity", including the ideal specific strategies of "sovereign power" and "enriching the country and strengthening the country", and even his "theory of ceremony", "theory of music" and "rule by monarch" can be said to be very realistic. On the basis of affirming the social hierarchy and professional division of labor that had been formed at that time, it stipulated the inherent rights and status of each member of society and required them to perform their duties, so as to achieve the harmony of the whole society. Of course, this does not mean that Xunzi's principle of governing the country has no idealism. Because, if there is no idealism in his theory, then his theory will not have any attraction, and he cannot be called a thinker.

Primitive Confucianism, from the end of the Spring and Autumn Period to the Warring States Period, is one of the "outstanding schools" with wide influence in society. The theory of moral cultivation advocated by them had a far-reaching influence on the "scholar" class, but the ideal political system and the principle of governing the country they designed were too divorced from the social reality of feudal lords at that time because of their main spirit, that is, unifying the whole country and giving priority to etiquette and law. Therefore, the original Confucianism is different from the Confucianism that later became the basis of the actual social system. It's just a general theory about moral cultivation and political ideals. In our discussion below, people will see that it is very important to distinguish this difference.

Edit this paragraph: political institutionalization and religious Confucianism in Han Dynasty.

In the early Han Dynasty, in order to eradicate the extreme depression of social life caused by tyranny and war at the end of Qin Dynasty, the rulers adopted the principles and policies of simple administration, inaction and solidarity with the people to restore social vitality. Correspondingly, in terms of cultural thought, it mainly advocates and respects Huang theory. This situation did not change until Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty. However, this does not mean that Confucianism did not play a role at all in the early Han society. Confucianism is still very influential in imparting historical and cultural knowledge to the early Han society. The teaching and research of the historical document "Six Classics" respected by Confucianism has also been affirmed and valued by the government. Xunzi's theory had a far-reaching influence on Confucianism in the early Han Dynasty, and the studies of poetry, Yi, etiquette and music in the Six Classics were all inherited by Xunzi. At the same time, as a master of pre-Qin philosophers and Confucian schools, Xunzi's extensive learning style also had a great influence on the development of early Han thought.

For example, Dong Zhongshu, a great scholar in the Western Han Dynasty, not only accepted and promoted Xunzi's theory of paying equal attention to etiquette and law, but also absorbed a lot of Mohist theories such as "universal love" and "Shang Tong", and even some religious thoughts in Mohist theory. What's more, his research on Yang Gong in the Spring and Autumn Period was full of the theory of Yin and Yang, which made the thought of Yin and Yang and Five Elements an important part of Confucianism after the Han Dynasty. Ban Gu clearly pointed out this fact when he said in Records of the Five Elements of Han Dynasty: "Dong Zhongshu ruled the ram in the Spring and Autumn Period and began to advocate Yin and Yang and became a Confucian school." Dong Zhongshu once suggested to Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty: "The subjects of the Six Arts (Six Classics) are all wrong, and Confucius' skills are all unique, so don't make progress." (Biography of Han Dong's Zhongshu) This is an important basis for Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty to carry out the policy of "ousting a hundred schools of thought and respecting Confucianism alone". However, it must be pointed out that what Dong Zhongshu is talking about here is obviously not the original Confucius theory, nor the original Confucianism, but the "Confucius' skill" in Dong Zhongshu's mind, which was developed by him and other Confucian scholars in the early Han Dynasty and absorbed the advantages of various theories such as Mohism, Taoism, Ming, Fa, Yin and Yang.

Dong Zhongshu's development of Confucianism lies not only in academic theory, but also in his promotion of Confucianism to political institutionalization and religiousization. Dong Zhongshu's Yang Gong Xue in the Spring and Autumn Period is a theory closely related to social reality. Gongyangxue believes that the judgment of various social events and the evaluation of historical figures contained in Spring and Autumn Annals have certain code significance, which can be used as the basis and example for judging various events and evaluating figures in today's society (Han Dynasty). This was the so-called "Spring and Autumn Prison Break" theory that was quite popular in the society at that time. From this, they further believe that the theories of "three unification", "three integration" and "three generations" mentioned in Spring and Autumn Annals are all arguments for the establishment of the Han Dynasty; The various manners mentioned in the Spring and Autumn Annals can also be imitated by the Han Dynasty. Therefore, Dong Zhongshu wrote Spring and Autumn Fan Lu to reveal the grand purpose and subtle meaning of Confucius' Spring and Autumn Annals. In his view, the Spring and Autumn Annals revised the meaning of beginning and ending, and achieved the goal of coping with change and connecting life and death, which was very human. " ("Jade Cup") "Spring and Autumn Annals" records the gains and losses of the world, but seeing its reason, it is very quiet and clear, so we must not ignore it. "So he quoted Xia Zi as saying:" Those who have a country must learn Chunqiu. If you don't study Spring and Autumn Annals, you won't see the danger before and after, and you won't know the great handle of the country and the heavy responsibility of the monarch. " (Seo Woo) These views of Dong Zhongshu were very influential at that time. For example, when Sima Qian talked about Spring and Autumn Annals, he clearly said, "I heard it from Dong Sheng." At the same time, he also strongly emphasized: "A country can't help but know Chunqiu, and a minister can't help but know Chunqiu. ..... As the father of the monarch, I don't know the meaning of the Spring and Autumn Annals, and I will be the first to blame; Those who are courtiers and do not understand the meaning of Spring and Autumn Annals will die in the name of death. " (Preface to Historical Records Taishi Gong) No wonder there was a saying that Confucius wrote "Spring and Autumn Annals" at that time.

The Spring and Autumn Annals is believed to have been written by Confucius, and the Spring and Autumn Annals written by Confucius is actually a written law to formulate etiquette and justice for the Han Dynasty. So where should Confucius be placed? Dong Zhongshu and Han Confucianism came up with a wonderful title: "Wang Su", that is, the king who has no actual throne. In this way, Confucianism began to be associated with the actual social and political system at that time. However, this is only the beginning of Dong Zhongshu's era. It was not until Emperor Zhang in the Eastern Han Dynasty that the emperor personally presided over and convened the "White Tiger View" meeting. After the meeting, Ban Gu, a famous scholar, compiled and published an official document: "On the White Tiger with the Same Mind", which truly completed the transformation of some major Confucian theories into the realistic social and political system and the moral norms that all members of society must abide by together. Since then, Confucianism is no longer a simple theory of ethical and moral cultivation and a political ideal, but has the function of a social system.

At the same time of the institutionalization of Confucian politics, there was a trend of religious Confucianism in Han Dynasty. In Dong Zhongshu and the weft books circulated at that time, "heaven" was constantly portrayed as the supreme god in Confucianism. For example, Dong Zhongshu said, "Heaven is the great king of the gods." (Spring and Autumn Annals), and tried to preach that Heaven has a will, which can be induced by people, and that King Dao is a set of religious theological theories such as "accepting God's will". Confucius, the founder of Confucianism, naturally became the king of teaching. In order to deify the founder, Confucius was described not only as the son of God, but also as a strange face quite different from ordinary people in a large number of weft books circulating at that time [5]. Similarly, the sages of past dynasties, such as Yao, Shun, Yu, Tang, Wen Wang, Zhou Gong, etc. In Shu Wei, the gods who are highly respected by Confucianism are dressed differently. In addition, these books are accompanied by myths and mystical theories of Yin-Yang and Five Elements to explain Six Classics, Analects of Confucius, Filial Piety, River Map and Luoshu. These books can also be regarded as Confucian classics needed for the religiousization of Confucianism at that time. Moreover, the Confucian etiquette system that has been gradually improved since the Qin and Han Dynasties (see Guan Yi, marrying foreigners, drinking foreigners in the village, hiring foreigners and offering sacrifices to foreigners in the Book of Rites) has also prepared etiquette conditions for the religiousization of Confucianism. Judging from the development history of Confucianism in the Han Dynasty, the religiousization of Confucianism is closely related to the political institutionalization of Confucianism, which is carried out at the same time. The former helps to establish and consolidate the latter.

The formation and strengthening of the social and political functions of Confucianism has also weakened its role as a general ethical cultivation and political ideal. In primitive Confucianism, it inspires people's consciousness of abiding by moral norms and pursuing an ideal society through moral education and ideal education. Therefore, Confucianism is of great significance and function to the cultivation of literati. When some of the main contents of Confucianism are institutionalized by politics and become external norms that you must abide by consciously or unconsciously, whether you are willing or not, then its training significance and role will be greatly weakened. In this way, the success of the institutionalization of Confucianism has become an opportunity for its moral education function to decline.

By the end of the Han Dynasty, the Confucian ethical code (Zoroastrianism), which was institutionalized by politics, on the one hand became something that bound and suppressed people's natural feelings, on the other hand, it also became a tool for hypocrites to seek fame and gain fame, thus causing strong dissatisfaction. Metaphysics used this abuse to reconcile the contradiction between religion and nature (temperament) in Ming Dynasty, both of which emphasized "nature". Moreover, in terms of theoretical theory, metaphysics also clearly stated that "to clarify the essence, Confucianism should be used" (Book of the Later Han Dynasty, Volume 12, Yuan Yue Hong). Therefore, since the birth of metaphysics, although Confucianism still maintains a dominant position in the political system, its function in ideological cultivation has been replaced by metaphysics or Taoism (and Taoism). After the Eastern Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties and even the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the influence of Buddhism surpassed metaphysics and played an important role in the ideological cultivation of literati. Therefore, during the 700 years from Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties to the end of Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties, only those things embodied in political institutionalization continued to play a role under the maintenance of the ruling class.

Although the study of Confucian literature was not interrupted during this period, the works such as Justice of the Five Classics compiled by Confucius in the Tang Dynasty did not have much new ideas except the continuation of the metaphysical views of Han Confucianism. Therefore, Confucianism does not have much effect on people's ideological cultivation. When commenting on the social functions of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism, later generations often say: "Governing the mind with Buddhism, governing the body with Taoism, and governing the world with Confucianism." (Song Xiaozong Zhao Shen dialect, quoted from Liu Mi's "Three Religions to Be Fair") This statement reflects from one angle that in a long historical period, Buddhism and Taoism played a far greater role in people's cultivation than Confucianism.

The great changes in the character of Confucianism in the Han Dynasty and the rise and fall of the social function of Confucianism at two levels deserve further in-depth study and thinking.

Edit this passage of Confucianism in Song, Ming and Qing Dynasties.

The great influence of Buddhism and Taoism on the physical and mental cultivation of scholars has caused dissatisfaction and anxiety of some Confucian scholars. They believe that self-cultivation of Buddhism and Taoism will make people disobey Confucian etiquette, thus endangering the ruling order of society. Therefore, on the grounds that Buddhism advocates becoming a monk and violates the principle of loyalty and filial piety, monks not only do not engage in production, but also waste people and money on their Buddhist activities and temple construction. It is against this background that Han Yu, a famous writer in the Tang Dynasty, made his remarks about Buddhism. However, some other Confucian scholars have noticed that Buddhist theory does not completely conflict with Confucianism. As long as it is used well, it can complement Confucianism and have the same effect. For example, Liu Zongyuan, Han Yu's good friend and famous writer, pointed out that Han Yu's criticism of Buddhism was superficial, that is, "complaining outside and staying, knowing the stone instead of Yu Yun", that is, accusing Han Yu of not understanding the essence contained in Buddhist theory. He believes that "there are blameless people in the floating picture, which are often combined with the Book of Changes and The Analects of Confucius. Really happy is a natural disposition, no different from Confucius. " This means that some truths in Buddhism are consistent with those in the Confucian Book of Changes and The Analects of Confucius. If you study and practice hard, it will have the same effect on people's temperament cultivation as Confucius and Confucianism. Others are even more farsighted. Drawing lessons from the metaphysical theory of mind and nature of Buddhism and Taoism, they took the initiative to enter the interior of Confucianism, explored the theoretical and classical basis that could compete with Buddhism and Taoism, and established the metaphysical theoretical system of Confucian mind and nature cultivation.

In this respect, Li Ao, a disciple of Han Yu, is the most farsighted. He said: "although there are books of life, scholars can't solve them, so they all enter the village, column, old age and history." The ignorant, that is, the master's way is not enough to live a poor life, and the believers are also. If you have questions for me, I will spread them with what I know. Written in books, there are sources of openness, and there is a lack of ways to abandon and not to promote, which can be passed on to the time. "("Renaturation Book ") The general idea of this passage is that although there are Confucian works on the truth of life, most people go to Buddhism and Taoism because Confucianism does not understand and will not invent it. People who don't know the situation think that Confucianism is not enough to find out the fundamental truth of life, and many people also believe this statement. Now that someone has asked me this question, I will tell you as much as I know. So I wrote an article to reveal the source of the learning of life. In this way, the abandoned truth in Confucianism is almost cut off, and it may continue to be passed down. So, what classics were discovered by Li Ao and retained the principle of Confucian exploration of life? Judging from the contents cited and enumerated in his three renaturation books, the main ones are Yi and The Mean. Li Ao's exposition and invention are of great significance in the history of Confucianism. The Book of Changes and The Doctrine of the Mean are the main classical basis for sexologists in later Song and Ming Dynasties to exert the metaphysical principle of Confucian life and compete with Buddhism and Taoism. The five sons of the Northern Song Dynasty (Zhou Dunyi, Zhang Zai, Shao Yong, Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi) were regarded as the pioneers of Neo-Confucianism, and they all established their own theoretical systems by expounding the Yi-ology.

Neo-Confucianism takes it as its duty to inherit the orthodoxy of Yao Shun, Yu, Tang, Wen, Wu, Kong and Meng and revive Confucianism. However, the Confucianism they want to revive is not mainly Confucianism at the political system level. Because, although some changes have taken place in the political system since the Han and Tang Dynasties, as the foundation of the social and political system, Confucianism has always been fully maintained by those in power. Therefore, the Confucianism that sexologists want to revive is mainly Confucianism at the level of ethics and physical and mental cultivation. They hope to give full play to the social function of Confucianism in moral cultivation and regain the physical and mental cultivation and ideological and theoretical fields controlled by Buddhism and Taoism for 700 years. Moreover, the Confucianism revived by the new Confucianism is very different from the original Confucianism in the pre-Qin period, both in content and form.

When it comes to primitive Confucianism, we mainly talk about some specific ethical norms and practical principles for governing the country and ensuring the country. In other words, what primitive Confucianism tells you is mainly the norms, principles and methods of what to do and how to do it in daily behavior. However, metaphysical theoretical issues such as why we do this, especially the basis for doing so, are rarely discussed, and sometimes even very brief. However, in the theory of Buddhism and Taoism, there are many in-depth discussions on the metaphysical theory of the world, society and life. This is exactly what Li Ao said, which is why people "all participate in Zhuang, Lie, Lao and Shi". Sexologists accepted this lesson, so they tried their best to improve the metaphysical theory when expounding the basic practical principles of primitive Confucianism. Only by constructing a system of righteousness and conscience can Confucianism compete with Taoism, Buddhism and Buddhism in metaphysical theory.

I think the most obvious example of upgrading the practical principle of primitive Confucianism to the general metaphysical principle is the discussion of "benevolence" In front of us, we listed a lot of materials about Confucius answering disciples' questions about benevolence, all of which are concrete practical projects. However, in addition to these specific practical matters, Ren also added many metaphysical principles. For example, when Cheng Yi talked about "benevolence", he once said, "Doctors are heartless if they don't recognize pain, and people are heartless if they don't recognize righteousness, such as recently." This metaphor shows that Cheng Yichuan has raised "benevolence" to the height of "righteousness". And the so-called promotion to the height of "righteousness",