In the study of mathematics and mechanics, the most famous Russian mathematician is Barichev, an academician of China Academy of Sciences. In the study of number theory and mechanics, he closely combined mathematical problems with theoretical problems in natural science and technology, and solved many problems in mechanical theory and mechanical structure. Chebyshev created more than 40 new machines and transformed more than 80 old ones. His representative theory is the theory of polynomial approximation function, and other academic works are of great significance to the development of modern Russian mathematics.
Another outstanding Russian mathematician, Suo-Wa-Kovalev Skaya, the first female professor in the world, has made important contributions to the study of differential equations and mechanics, focusing on the problem of solid rotation. When the problem was about to be solved, he also found a new situation that the gyrator was not completely symmetrical, and he had related works.
In the field of physics research, many outstanding scholars have emerged in Russia. Among them, yeager Stoletov, a professor at Moscow University, is the most outstanding. Mainly engaged in the research of electromagnetism and photoelectric principle. He found that the magnetic induction intensity changed with the change of magnetic field intensity. At the same time, Stoletov also studied the photoelectric principle and found the basic law of photoelectric effect. He not only wrote many academic works and scientific papers, but also trained more excellent physicists.
The great chemist, Professor De-Yi-Mendeleev of Petersburg University, was the most famous chemical expert in Russia during this period. He discovered the periodic table of chemical elements, which is a major breakthrough in chemical research and has far-reaching influence. Because of the appearance of the periodic table, Mendeleev also predicted some chemical elements and their properties, such as gallium and germanium. Wei et al. systematically expounded the principles of inorganic chemistry from the point of view of the periodic table of elements for the first time in the book Principles of Chemistry. This book is printed repeatedly in Russian, German and other languages and widely distributed. At the same time, Mendeleev is also very concerned about the development of oil, its chemical and physical properties and its industrial use. He also made great achievements in technical chemistry, metrology and fluid mechanics. He first put forward the principle of solution hydration.
Popov, a famous physicist in Petersburg, was one of the earliest Russian scientists to study electromagnetic waves. He is famous for inventing the wireless telegraph. 1889, he proved that signals can be transmitted by electromagnetic waves within a certain distance without wires. He also gave a related academic report at the Russian Society of Physical Chemistry in May 1895. He used his first radio receiver in Russia, Thunderbolt.
Russian electrician Pu-Ni-Jablochkov invented the arc lamp in 1876, which was then called lochkov candle in Ya Bu. Arc lamps are mainly used for street lighting. From 1876 to 1878, arc lamps are widely used in Paris, London, Berlin, Madrid, Naples and other cities. Foreign countries call it Russian lamp.
/kloc-In the second half of the 20th century, Russia also made remarkable achievements in metallurgy, machinery manufacturing and military technology. Ji Kang-chernov, a metallurgist and professor of artillery school, found that steel will cause phase transformation when heated, and found the critical point of phase transformation. In other words, temperature can determine the structure and properties of steel. His discovery laid a theoretical foundation for modern metallography and steel heat treatment. 189 1 year, Xie-yi-mohsin manufactured a three-inch caliber rifle. Makarov vice admiral designed a new warship and personally led and developed the powerful icebreaker "Ermak".
For example, in 1887, Ai Kang tsiolkovsky, an expert in aviation theory and aviation technology, designed an all-metal airship with a brand-new structure, published relevant papers on the theory and structure of all-metal airship, and formulated the design scheme of rocket spacecraft. Tsiolkovsky's research and work laid the foundation for jet theory.
The biologist Yi Yi Mechnikov is one of the founders of comparative pathology, evolutionary embryology, microbiology and immunology. He founded the theory of the development of multicellular animals. He also found that all kinds of multicellular animals have cells capable of intracellular digestion, which he called phagocytes. His theory that phagocytes devour foreign bodies and bacteria plays a very important role in modern microbial pathology, especially immunology.
Rizek Dimitriev, a Russian botanist and Darwinist, has made outstanding contributions to the study of plant photosynthesis. He found that plants absorb carbon dioxide in the atmosphere through exposure, and in the process of absorbing carbon dioxide, chlorophyll in plants is needed to adapt to light energy. And published a book on light absorption of plants in 1875.
During this period, Russian social sciences also developed. The most famous are Chernyshevski and Dobro Lyubov. They have made important contributions in the field of philosophy. Chernyshevski is not only a great Russian revolutionary democrat, but also a famous philosopher, critic and utopian socialist. In philosophy, he profoundly criticized Kant, Hegel and Becquerel. Hume's idealism further developed materialist philosophy. He believes that matter is primary and the world can be infinitely recognized. Chernyshevski has also made outstanding achievements in aesthetics. He has a famous saying that beauty is life. Dobro Lyubov, another great Russian revolutionary democrat, philosopher and literary critic, also made important contributions to the development of materialist philosophy.
Xie Mi Solovjeff was a famous Russian historian in the 1950s and 1970s. His representative work consists of 29 volumes: "This book is written on the basis of rich archival materials and has had a far-reaching impact on the development of Russian historical science. It is still a book with high academic value. Solovjeff's works include: Harmony.
The most outstanding representative in economics is the economist Wa-Wa-Fleroff, who wrote a book. This is an important work in the history of Russian economic thought. Neve da Nihlsson completed the Russian translation of the first volume of Marx's Das Kapital and published it in 1872. The second volume was published in1885; The third volume was published in 1896. The Russian version of the book has played a positive role in promoting the spread of Marxism in Russia. Yaichupolov, a famous economist, made a contribution to the study of railway economy and wrote a book.
In literature, Russia flourished in the second half of the19th century, and a large number of famous literary masters emerged. Lev tolstoy is a great Russian writer. He reached the peak of European realistic literature with his works < Resurrection > and < anna karenine >: his immortal works.
Another famous writer is Xie Turgenev. He first wrote this novel, and later he wrote, < aristocratic house >, < Eve >, < father and son >; Most of these novels reflect the major problems of Russian social life before and after the abolition of serfdom. Turgenev's creation is characterized by profound reality, which not only shows his sensitivity to the major social problems of that era, but also shows his rigorous structure and concise wording.
I-Ya-Goncharov is an outstanding realistic writer, who wrote three novels, Ordinary Stories, < Oberlov > and < Cliff >. In this work, Lenin once called all habits, conformism and indifference of parasitic life Aubrey Love's character.
There is also the famous writer Fei Mi Dostoevsky. His representative works are,,< Idiot >,< His works enjoy a high reputation in the world literary world. Most of his works describe and depict the social life in the development of Russian capitalism.
Anba Chekhov, a famous short story writer and playwright, occupies an important position in Russian realistic literature. He wrote a large number of short stories, novellas and more than a dozen plays in his life. The famous novels are, < the first district >: the famous plays are, < seagull >, < the three sisters > and.
Gorky is a flag of Russian writers. 1892, Gorky published his short story Marka Fedra, and later, he successively published < Song of the Eagle >, & ltCirka >, < orlov and his wife >, < 26 plus one >; Konovalov Gorky's works mostly reflect the life of the lower class. His style of work is both romantic and realistic.
Pi-i-Tchaikovsky was the greatest Russian composer at the end of 19. His works not only made Russian music art reach the world-class level, but also initiated a new stage in the development of opera and ballet music. His works represent the peak of the development of world music art. The Queen of Spades, both of which are masterpieces of opera art, are popular all over the world. His ballet works include "Sleeping Beauty" and "Sleeping Beauty", and he is a world leader in ballet art. He also has many excellent works in symphony; In addition, Tchaikovsky also wrote many beautiful piano concertos, violin concertos and chamber music, such as quartets, quintets and piano music. Piano Concerto No.1: And people like music works very much.
Russian painting art also developed greatly in the second half of the19th century. Realistic painters Lie Bin and Surikov appeared in this period. Their works represent the peak of Russian realistic painting art in that period.
Lie Bin's works cover a wide range, including genre painting, portrait painting, historical painting, landscape painting and illustration. His works are expressive and show superb composition skills. The Religious Team in Kursk Province is his masterpiece, full of Russian national characteristics. ,< unexpected arrival >,< propagandist arrested reflects Lie Bin's sympathy and expectation for the soldiers of the times. : 1885 was exhibited in Petersburg, which caused great repercussions. This work is unique in conception and unparalleled in painting, and it is a rare masterpiece.
Wai Surikov is a painter as famous as Lie Bin, who is good at creating historical paintings. Surikov's works show important historical events in Russian history, and the pictures are extremely magnificent. The characters in his works, whether ordinary citizens or suffering villagers, are colorful and distinctive. So many Russians call them civilian artists. Representative works include: Morning of Execution, < Morozova, A Noble Woman >, < suvorov Crossing the Alps >, < Stepan Razin > and so on. Among them,
The development of Russian capitalism also puts forward high requirements for architecture. /kloc-In the second half of the 20th century, there were more and more multi-storey houses with various metal structures. Concrete and cement have replaced bricks and stones as the main building materials. At the end of the 20th century, modern architectural styles with the latest technology began to appear. Reinforced concrete skeleton began to be used in multi-storey buildings with strange ladders, balconies and cornices.
In terms of sculpture, the famous sculptor Ma-Ma-An Tokol has created a series of historical figures, such as, < Peter I >: < yaroslav the Wise > We can still appreciate the style of Ma-Ma-An Tokol's works from contemporary Russian sculptures.