2. How did code of hammurabi explain the stone carving pictures? The student's answer is "theocracy". Why did you come to such a unified conclusion? Little did they know that this period of history was from junior middle school, and most students were convinced of this old and wrong historical conclusion. However, according to the excerpts from the paper code of hammurabi and Its Audience published in international academic journals on October 20th and recommended by Associate Professor Ouyang Xiaoli, the combination of battens and coils originated from the concept of "justice" and is understood as "straight thing" in the two river basins, which represents the tool for surveyors in this area to determine whether it is straight when laying the architectural foundation. Shamash, the sun god, gave Hammurabi sticks and coils instead of a scepter. Students who encounter cognitive subversion are very surprised and have a strong interest in getting to the bottom of it. Teachers should strike while the iron is hot and guide the situation: historical events are a reflection of some objective content, but historians' research on historical events will inevitably dope the author's subjective consciousness. Therefore, for history learners, it is necessary to base on the overall vision and contact perspective in order to get the whole picture of history as much as possible. Historical events and their explanations provided by textbooks are not immutable, and some conclusions can be discussed and questioned. This is based on the soul of historiography-seeking truth, that is, after exploration, it is infinitely close to the truth of history. Finding the breakthrough point of historical interpretation and the speculative nature of quasi-interpretation argument is the key to a good lesson.
3. Transformation refers to the process that the connotation of the structure of things changes quickly or slowly under the influence of certain internal and external conditions, thus increasing or decreasing the function of things; And "social transformation" refers to the process that the connotation of social structure changes in all directions under the joint action of certain internal and external conditions, thus triggering drastic changes in various fields of society. Some scholars call this process "metabolism". For example, the clues of China's modern social transformation after the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895. Economic form: natural economy ~ commodity economy. State polity: late Qing Empire ~ Republic of China. Thought: Confucianism dominates ~ western learning gradually enters. Education system: imperial examination system ~ new education.
4. Analyze teaching materials, language expression and blackboard design to improve teachers' analytical, expressive and design abilities. Vivid history is the main feature of history teaching language. Talking about people should be vivid and credible, talking about things should be immersive and vivid. This kind of induction is reasonable.
5. Li Huijun, it is the responsibility of education, reality and expectation for the future to cultivate students' historical thinking. A good history lesson should have a soul, and the wisdom of history often germinates in synaesthesia and common sense and is generated in linkage. We should be good at considering specific historical topics in the overall historical coordinates and looking for the soul of historical lessons. Braudel's time period theory ~ geographical time (long-term corresponding structure), social time (medium-term corresponding situation) and individual time (short-term corresponding event) ~ broadens the horizon of historical understanding. Only by observing the changes and wind direction for a long time and in a large space can we understand the true meaning of history and reveal the past lives and progressive logic of history. Only in this way can the history class reflect its grandeur, broadness and atmosphere, and the specific historical problems can be widely and heavily supported. To refine and capture the soul of historical lessons, we should not only be good at examining it from the height of history, but also be good at meditating and carving it in the depths and details of history. History teachers should have the vision and mind of "making a heart for heaven and earth, making a life for life, connecting the past with the future, and creating peace for all generations". To a certain extent, to cultivate students' discipline accomplishment of "historical interpretation" is to "cultivate our historical thinking". From the perspective of historical philosophy, the object of "historical interpretation" is past historical phenomena, while the subject of "historical interpretation" is people who observe, think, understand and judge past phenomena.
6. In Zhuangzi's eyes, people's understanding has three limitations: it is impossible for a frog in a well to discuss the sea with them because of the limitation of living space. Because of the limitation of survival time, it is impossible for summer insects to discuss the freezing problem with them. It is impossible for rural people to discuss avenues with them because they are bound by education and knowledge. To break through the barriers of space, time and knowledge and cultivate a vision that is not limited to the present but can penetrate the development context and cause and effect of things, learning history is undoubtedly a necessary choice. The use of history not only lies in learning from others' strengths, but also enables us to constantly surpass our own barriers, gain insight and appreciate the scenery of "a castle outside the mountain" in the process of "learning from nature and learning from the past and the present". History can not only illuminate the past and the future, but also illuminate the soul. Studying history allows us to have a broad mind and guide us to a broader and more open mind and develop a bigger pattern.
7. Talk about synaesthesia in history teaching. Mr. Qian Mu said in the China Historical Research Law: Our research system must be general research. On the one hand, every system comes into being for a reason, and it can't come into being out of thin air. This must draw lessons from the past; On the other hand, each system must be linked with other systems at the same time in order to become a system of a certain era and a certain government, and must be linked with each other.
In the General History of China, Mr. Wang pointed out: Mr. Wang repeatedly lamented that "it is rare to have a general knowledge", and there are hundreds of scholars, but no one has a general knowledge ... Historical common sense is an essential element for historians, and the origin of common sense must be accumulated through long-term reading. Read more, read more, and then you can continue to associate, so that you can be suddenly enlightened.
Both history research and middle school history teaching need synaesthesia. Professor Nie Youli advocates that there should be "three links" in the process of preparing lessons, that is, this lesson is connected with the previous and subsequent classes, this lesson is connected with the unit, and this lesson is connected with the whole book. Vertical opening is mostly caused by the evolution of the system and the accumulation of the previous generation's experience, while horizontal opening is mostly to tap the internal relations of politics, economy and culture in a certain period and promote the reform at that time. In short, with synaesthesia awareness, teachers can guide students to activate seemingly isolated knowledge points and deepen their sense of historical connection, which is also of great significance to cultivate students' higher-order thinking. Example: vertically, such as the ancient official selection system, the difference between centralization, the unification of Qin and Han Dynasties and the unification of Sui and Tang Dynasties. Topics such as the history of ethnic integration are mostly vertical. Horizontal, such as the emergence and development of modern European capitalism, gradually established its rule over the world in economic, cultural, ideological and political aspects. In addition, history and Taoism can also establish interdisciplinary synaesthesia education. For example, the military commanders Yue Fei, Lu You and Xin Qiji in the Song Dynasty were all the results of the policy of valuing literature over martial arts. After the establishment of modern Anglo-American capitalist system, relevant laws have been used to ensure the development of capitalist economy, which is the rule of law to protect democracy and has something in common with socialist core values.
We can also look at the history of China from the perspective of western culture. For example, westerners pay more attention to system construction and engineering construction, Qin Shihuang unified the Central Plains to build the Great Wall, and Emperor Wendi of Sui Dynasty established the imperial examination system, with three provinces and six departments. People in China pay more attention to human feelings, for example, in the period of Emperor Taizong, "both the monarch and the minister are straight". This is the result of looking at the problem from two different angles: rule by law and rule by man.
What is the historical explanation? It refers to the attitude, ability and method of rational analysis and objective evaluation of historical things based on historical materials and historical understanding. All historical narratives are essentially explanations of history, even statements of basic facts contain the subjective understanding of the narrator. People describe and explain the past in many different ways. Through the collection and analysis of historical materials, we can understand historical things dialectically and objectively, not only describing them, but also revealing the deep causal relationship behind their appearances. Through the interpretation of history, we are getting closer to the truth of history. ? In my opinion, a penetrating historical explanation must use a main line to connect seemingly disorderly knowledge points in series. So, how to tap this main line? Undoubtedly, this is an effective way to connect knowledge vertically and horizontally.
8. The half path of image evidence history in middle school history teaching: first, the background information of the image, such as the author's personal information at the time and place, whether the image was destroyed or tampered with in its circulation process; Second, fully tap the explicit and implicit information in the image content. In order to verify the extracted information, a variety of materials are often needed to verify each other to avoid isolated evidence. Thirdly, it is necessary to verify whether the author intentionally beautifies, distorts or even fabricates. If so, we need to be cautious when demonstrating historical facts, but these distorted photos can be used as direct historical materials to explore the author's intrinsic motivation; Fourthly, paying attention to the way and breadth of image circulation can often reflect the value judgment of the author's thoughts reflected by the content and meaning of images in different social times.
Such as pictures of cultural relics, one is to describe the background of cultural relics, the other is to guide students to observe cultural relics, dig out surface information, such as the nose ring of a bronze bull statue, and then dig out hidden information and ritual vessels; Third, the emergence and popularization of technology in Niu Geng are mutually confirmed by cultural relics and documents. Interlocking and logical, it clearly presents half of the history of cultural relics.
9. The essence of history discipline is a humanistic spirit, and its effective achievement and value orientation depend on teachers' historical knowledge and their teaching ideas based on historical knowledge. As Du said: Historical knowledge is the historian's ability to choose facts. It is a historical view, a unique historical vision of the research subject when facing the research object, and an insight and judgment on history. "Soft history or cruel history. Different histories have different influences. " Therefore, to some extent, the history teacher's knowledge of history determines what historical facts he chooses to present in the classroom, and also affects the value orientation of the classroom. It is in this process that teachers actively create opportunities for learners to try to choose, participate and experience, so that students can form personalized emotional attitudes and values in this practical action.
10. The student groups in each era have their own unique temperament and characteristics due to different characteristics of the times. Good classes in different times have the characteristics of * * * *: firstly, it should be able to ignite the sparks of students' thinking, secondly, it should light up students' ability to solve problems, and thirdly, it should enlighten students' correct "three views". For example, the teaching method of the concept of time and space has changed into a way of thinking that considers the overall situation.
Paying attention to thinking is to cultivate students to think rationally about realistic or historical problems in the form of analysis, judgment and reasoning on the basis of existing knowledge and experience, and then form their own views. Paying attention to emotion is to guide students to evaluate the personality characteristics, behaviors and motives of historical figures from a historical perspective, and to analyze the influence of individual values and behaviors on others from a social moral perspective, always with an inclusive heart. Paying attention to methods means guiding students to explore problems with empirical spirit and scientific methods, paying attention to interdisciplinary exploration of historical research, consciously combining history with literature, chemistry, geography, psychology and other disciplines, and cultivating students' ability of knowledge integration and transfer, as well as their ability to explain history and seek communication. It can be said that thinking is the classroom embodiment of historical depth, emotion is the humanistic reflection of historical temperature, and method is the technical support of historical validity and reliability. For example, the academic inquiry about the signing of Magna Carta may have nothing to do with the college entrance examination, but it inspires us to pay attention to the historical details that we are used to, find problems in the historical details, and break the thinking habit of understanding the past history in the modern context. In the process of dispelling doubts, students deepen their true interpretation of Magna Carta, which is close to the truth of history. This is precisely the training goal of the time series concept of the core literacy of history discipline, that is, to let students understand that any historical thing takes place in a specific and concrete time and space background, and only under a specific time and space framework can we have an accurate understanding of historical facts. ? Another example is French Marshal Fauci, "This is not peace, but a 20-year truce." This sentence is not aimed at the Versailles system, but concerns about the future of France and Germany. My smile goes from the horizontal knife to the sky and stays in the liver and gallbladder. It is also Liang Qichao's stealing column. Although it is a "fake history", it has a utility comparable to real history. Why steal a column? It highlights the revolutionary spirit, but conceals public opinion.
1 1. Professor Xu Lan said: "Through the study of history in history classroom teaching, students should have something higher than understanding general history knowledge." For example, you can understand history like a historian and frame your own interpretation of history; When students graduate, especially when they no longer take history teaching and research as their profession, what kind of thinking quality, ability, emotion, attitude and values left by past history study can benefit them for life and bring them a successful life?
12. Narrative concept and practice in middle school history classroom teaching
No matter how the concept changes, in a sense, the middle school history classroom teaching of general history education can be classified as narrative. In the narrative of history teaching, how to expand students' historical knowledge, how to temper students' historical thinking and how to deepen students' historical consciousness are three unavoidable problems.
First of all, clever narration ~ the art of expanding historical knowledge
Historian Croce said that there is no history without narration. Beautiful narration is also a preservative for historical works. Middle school history textbooks are often concise, which makes students unable to fully feel the vivid vitality of history. This requires that our classroom should strive to show a rigorous, logical, interesting, thoughtful, warm, touching and profound history, and should not be completely filled with the analysis of so-called historical elements such as background, causes and influences. To improve the narrative quality in history teaching, we must first carry out wonderful and ingenious narrative design and put fragmented historical figures and events into meaningful narrative structure, which is the art of expanding historical knowledge. Teachers' narrative ability determines the quality of the classroom, and clever narrative grasps three principles. 1. The idea is to face complex historical phenomena and vast amounts of historical materials. First of all, classroom narration requires teachers to carefully design the thinking track of a class from two aspects: historical dimension and teaching dimension, and establish the core point of view of a class, so as to integrate the teaching content and narrate. 2. Student-oriented? Classroom narration should stand as far as possible from the students' point of view, from the students' existing knowledge and familiar things, and from the students' cognitive laws and thinking logic. "We shouldn't teach students what they can't imagine and understand. Even the most important things in history must be abandoned. " In history teaching, it is especially important to avoid concepts flying and hats swinging, and not to let students' interest and desire in history disappear in the self-righteous cutting and analysis of historical knowledge in class. For example, Yao Hong, a special education teacher in Shanghai, used Grimm's fairy tales, which students are familiar with, as the starting point when telling the background of German reunification. There are more than three Grimm's fairy tales, including princess, prince and stepmother. Why? There were many small kingdoms in Germany at that time. Then why are there so many stepmothers? My understanding is that Grimm's fairy tales are a nation that lacks maternal love, has no motherland and is bullied in collective memory. /kloc-At the beginning of the 0/9th century, German national elites tried to rebuild the Germanic spirit with the help of traditional culture and won wide national recognition. 3. What's the most important detail? Clever narration and good use of details. What we pursue is the small incision in the great history, seeing the spirit in the subtleties, guiding students to discover new knowledge and forming understanding and insightful thinking. For example, when telling the story of the Beiyang warlords' heavy taxes destroying emerging businesses during the civil war, the following details were used: In order to raise military expenses, various warlords levied exorbitant taxes and miscellaneous fees, and an army in Sichuan levied land taxes on the people in advance, reaching 14 times a year. For more than a decade, the land tax was collected in advance until 2008.
Second, focus on methods ~ the tempering path of historical thinking
Mr. Hu Shi has a point: on the one hand, historiography is scientific, focusing on the collection and collation of historical materials; On the one hand, it is artistic, focusing on the narrative and explanation of historical facts. ? Guy, an American historian, believes that historical narrative without analysis is trivial, and historical analysis without narrative is lacking.
Thirdly, seeking reconciliation-the deepening logic of historical consciousness.
In the history class, ingenious narrative design and scientific thinking methods are all aimed at pursuing the "integration" of history learning. "Clever narration" is the premise, which determines the intimacy of students' dialogue with the ancients. "Emphasis on methods" is a method to guide students to learn to talk with the ancients and predecessors. "Seeking common ground" is the goal of classroom teaching, so that students can actively seek the wisdom of history and feel the value of history learning in the dialogue with the ancients and predecessors. They complement each other and are three progressive levels of history teaching. ? 1. Penetration of subject knowledge. Marx and Engels' dialectical materialism view of history shows: "As a vertical development, the structure of each era is left over from the previous generation, which is the role of vertical development in the horizontal structure;" At the same time, each generation continues the career of the previous generation under changed conditions, so it has to change the original structure more or less and leave it to the next generation. This is the role of the change of horizontal structure in the vertical historical development. The objective process of human history is the result of continuous deduction of horizontal contradictions and vertical development. "The study of middle school history has increasingly emphasized the combing and understanding of the overall clues of historical development, the comparison and connection of Chinese and foreign historical knowledge, and so on. This requires paying attention to the historical depth of historical knowledge in teaching narration and understanding the vertical and horizontal development of human history, which are mutually conditional and complementary. 2. Get discipline accomplishment. Historical materialism is the five core qualities of history discipline and the theoretical guarantee for obtaining all kinds of qualities; The concept of time and space is a necessary way to realize core literacy; Historical interpretation is the requirement of historical thinking and expression ability in all kinds of literacy; The feelings of home and country are the goal of value pursuit in all kinds of literacy. "
The core literacy of history discipline is an interrelated whole. Historical materialism is the starting point of teaching narrative; Everyone has a specific time and space, and needs to communicate and talk with the ancients and predecessors through reasonable imagination to cultivate students' awareness of putting themselves in a specific time and space; Demonstrate the rationality of narrative through the demonstration of historical materials, and cultivate students' "thinking based on historical materials" through the organic combination of teaching narrative and historical materials interpretation. One thing to say is that any conclusion must be based on historical data and arguments; Based on the historical interpretation of historical knowledge, through rational analysis and objective evaluation, people and events in the past can be transformed into coherent and meaningful historical knowledge. It is the responsibility of history education to cultivate modern China people with China's heart, world vision, social responsibility and humanistic pursuit. The cultivation of historical core literacy is a long-term process. Teachers should not solidify their understanding of "core literacy" in classroom teaching, let alone be literate for the sake of literacy. In teaching narration, it is necessary to clarify the internal relations of the five core qualities. Although it is impossible to highlight the cultivation of all literacy in a short class, it is impossible to "favor one over the other" in the narrative. We should have a sense of understanding, try to infiltrate the cultivation of core literacy into all aspects of teaching, and guide students to expand their knowledge, enrich their thinking and cultivate their quality.
3. Integration of history and reality
Historical thinking has its uniqueness and is a tool to help students observe and think about the world from different angles. History study is not extreme, but teaches people to be more rational. Sometimes we should look at reality from history, and sometimes we should look at history from reality. In teaching narration, we should try our best to put historical phenomena under the prism with a broader vision, guide students to discover historical laws with rich historical materials, feel pluralistic, inclusive and open, strive to integrate history and reality, learn to understand and respect, and draw wisdom and strength from life in the deconstruction of classroom core knowledge.
13. Optimization of history teaching logic
Simply put, the logic of history discipline consists of the logic of historical development and the logic of historical research.
When presenting "the basic law and general trend of human historical development" in history teaching, we should pay full attention to the law of causality to ensure the scientific and reasonable causal relationship. The so-called sense of wholeness means that all levels of historical development are not separated, but interact and evolve as a whole. Consistent with this, the logic of history teaching is to show this integrity and let students feel that various events in historical development do not exist in isolation.
Emphasizing teaching logic is by no means against and rejecting unconventional teaching arrangements. For example, time series is the logic of historical development, and the narrative from beginning to end conforms to the logic of time series. However, if the result of an event is unexpected and embarrassing, then flashback in teaching can attract students, which is precisely the most logical teaching arrangement. Teaching logic should make classroom teaching an orderly, rigorous and logical thinking process, instead of killing teaching spirituality with programmed thinking. History teaching is regular, but there is no formula. History classroom calls for creative teaching, and even more calls for smooth and reasonable teaching logic.
14. Speculative class
Use "question system" questioning strategy: 1. Optimization of problem set. In learning, according to the internal elements of knowledge or the structural mode of thinking, a problem set is formed. 2. Problem chain optimization. According to the level or deduction process of the problem, the problem chain is formed. 3. Problem network optimization. Around the core issues and auxiliary issues, a crisscross problem network is formed. 4. Problem domain optimization. In the comprehensive field, according to the participation degree of multiple intelligences, knowledge can be integrated across fields to form a more macroscopic problem domain.
According to the characteristics of history, the basic problems are divided into three levels: the memorization level, including the time, place, people, reasons, process and results of basic historical events; Understand the hierarchy, historical events and figures, and explain the formed historical view; The level of internalization, under the guidance of historical materialism, forms its own historical attitude and values through careful identification of historical events and scientific methods. The basic problems of the three levels are progressive relations, and the process of students solving these problems is the process of gradually cultivating the quality of history subjects.
15. Teaching features: high conception, wide vision, deep thinking and effective teaching.
Through the enfeoffment system of the Western Zhou Dynasty, the world belongs to Ji; Patriarchal law, the world belongs to the office; Minefield system, the world belongs to the king; Rites and music system, the world is orderly; The duke of Zhou vomited, and the world returned to the heart.
History class should constantly and forcefully push human beings to overcome prejudice.
The historical parties have passed away, and we can only understand and explain sympathetically based on historical consciousness. Historical consciousness, in short, everything should go back to that era, back to the background of that era, back to the complex relationship between various things in that era and the changes and trends caused by this relationship to examine history. The consciousness of evidence, time, background, change, criticism and value, which constitute historical consciousness, can not only grasp all the so-called disciplinary qualities such as the concept of time and space, historical data argumentation and historical interpretation, but also help to avoid the unprofessional confusion brought by similar concepts such as time and space to history teaching practice. With the sense of history in place, time is no longer a simple physical time, but a time with a sense of cultural change process and direction, and space is no longer a simple physical space, but a space with complex cultural background and value orientation composed of the relationship between man and himself, man and society, and man and nature. This distinctive feature of historical consciousness is not available in other disciplines, so it is a trump card of history discipline and must be taught to students in history teaching.