paddy field
Agriculture in ancient Egypt: Agriculture is very important to any country in the world. Therefore, the ancient Egyptians have long understood that agriculture is a job closely related to seasonal changes. Throughout history, Egypt is famous for its close ties with the Nile. Ancient Egyptian script: Ancient Egypt is not a society with universal culture-few ordinary people can read and write. However, the mantras and rituals that occupy a central position in religion are faithfully recorded. With a mysterious script called hieroglyphics, they were either copied on papyrus by scribes or carved in graves by craftsmen. Monuments and coffins Ancient Egyptian Architecture: Ancient Egypt is the birthplace of world civilization. Its architecture can be divided into three main periods: ① the architecture in the ancient kingdom period was represented by the world-famous pyramids; ② Grottoes and tombs were the representative buildings in the Middle Kingdom; (3) The buildings in the New Kingdom period are represented by temples. The largest of them are the Karnak Temple and the Amon Temple in Luxor, which reflect the highly developed material civilization of ancient Egypt. Ancient Egyptian Medicine: The greatest contribution of Egyptians to science is medicine. They have detailed written records of prescriptions for treating various diseases, including drug names, dosages, methods of taking drugs, etc., and have certain clinical experience in stomach diseases, cardiovascular diseases, cysts, sores, etc. These doctors can not only cure all kinds of intractable diseases, but also make up and dye their hair. Modifying skin, hands and feet, eliminating fleas and lice, etc. The making of mummies reflects the superb medical technology of ancient Egyptians and their belief in trying to live forever. Mathematics in ancient Egypt: Egypt is one of the countries with the earliest cultural development in the world, located on both sides of the Nile. From the ancient Egyptian mathematical papyrus documents "Moscow Papyrus" and "Rand Papyrus" left over today, we can see that the ancient Egyptians' mathematical knowledge includes arithmetic, algebra and geometry, and they have made great achievements at that time. Because the Nile River in ancient Egypt flooded regularly and flooded the whole valley, it is necessary to re-measure the cultivated land area of residents. Because of this need, the geodesic knowledge accumulated for many years has gradually developed into geometry.
Agricultural production in ancient Egypt needs to know the exact date of the Nile flooding, so it is very important to determine the seasons according to the astronomical phenomena, and astronomical knowledge is constantly accumulating and enriching. The ancient Egyptians founded the earliest solar calendar in human history in 2787 BC. During the Nile flood, the average height of the river water level was 27 feet. The monsoon rainfall in Ethiopia can be predicted, but the flood height of Nile water is unknown. If the river is less than 27 feet high, there will be famine in Egypt. If it is higher than 27 feet, there will be another flood. When the Nile flood comes, the water level will be predicted, but usually it will cause panic because the predicted water level is too low or too high.
If someone wants to avoid forced labor, he and his family will be severely punished.
Egyptians were the first culture to establish gardens. The earliest gardens were built in 2200 BC. The garden consists of a fish pond, fig and pomegranate trees, a shed covered with vines and a roadbed covered with flowers. Pharaoh and government officials regard these parks as paradise, where they are alone and enjoy the cool. These gardens are also set in some sacred religious places.
Agro-industrial technology and primitive science in ancient Egypt are located in the Nile valley in northeast Africa. Before 4000 BC, there appeared an ancient civilization-the Kingdom of Ancient Egypt, which was dominated by agriculture. It was the country with the longest history of slavery in the world and was occupied by foreigners in 525 BC. In terms of technology, ancient Egypt has long influenced neighboring nationalities and left a precious legacy for human civilization. Ancient Egypt was the first country in the world to enter the slave society, so its origin and science and technology based on ideological externalization must be at the highest level of development in the world at that time. Astronomy and mathematics. Agricultural production in ancient Egypt needs to know the exact date of the Nile flooding, so it is very important to determine the seasons according to the astronomical phenomena, and astronomical knowledge is constantly accumulating and enriching. The ancient Egyptians founded the earliest solar calendar in human history in 2787 BC. The formulation method is to set the day when Sirius and the sun rise on the horizon at the same time (when the Nile begins to flood) as the beginning of a year, with three seasons *** 12 months, 30 days per month, plus 5 days of year-end festivals * * * 365 days a year. This calendar only has a difference of 1/4 days every year, which is the original basis of the Gregorian calendar in the world today. Because the Nile floods every year, it is necessary to re-measure and demarcate the land. After years of work, the ancient Egyptians did more practical exercises in geometry than any other nation at that time, and accumulated a lot of mathematical knowledge. With the construction of water conservancy facilities, temples and pyramids, these mathematical knowledge has been applied and further enriched and developed. The ancient Egyptians used the counting system of 10 to calculate the area of rectangle, triangle, trapezoid and circle, as well as the volume of regular cylinder and truncated square cone. They use pi = 3.1605. Algebraically, the ancient Egyptians could solve linear equations with one variable and some simple quadratic equations with one variable. This knowledge later became the basis for the ancient Greeks to develop mathematics. Anatomy and medicine. The ancient Egyptians believed that people could continue to live in another world after death, so they dissected the dead and painted them into mummies. As a result, they have accumulated a lot of knowledge about human physiology and anatomy, which is undoubtedly beneficial to their medical development. Doctors in ancient Egypt were able to perform surgical operations to treat eye diseases, toothache, diarrhea, lung diseases and many gynecological diseases. They use all kinds of plants, animals and minerals to make medicines. Medicine in ancient Egypt was the most advanced in the world at that time, and this knowledge later had a great influence on western medicine through the ancient Greeks. Handicraft technology. Egypt's handicraft industry has also developed to a considerable extent. As early as 2700 BC, the ancient Egyptians built 47-meter-long ships. The technology of making glass was invented in 1600 BC, and the manufacturing technology of pottery, linen fabric, leather, papyrus (used for writing) and jewelry also reached a high level. Ancient Egyptians learned bronze smelting technology before and after the completion of 1500 BC, but copper resources were not rich. Iron was used late, and it was not until the 7th century BC that bronze was generally replaced. Building technology. Architectural technology is a comprehensive technology, which can largely reflect the overall technical level of a society, especially in ancient times. The most remarkable technological achievement in ancient Egypt in human history is the construction of huge pyramids and temples with stones that still exist today. The pyramids are the tombs of ancient Egyptian pharaohs (kings). The largest of the more than 70 existing pyramids is pyramid of khufu, which was built in 2600 BC. The tower height 146.5 meters, and the bottom is a square with a length of meters. It is made of polished boulders, each weighing an average of 2.5 tons and using about 2.3 million boulders. The stones were not bonded with plaster, and the joints were tight. Temple architecture in ancient Egypt is also amazing. For example, in the 4th century BC/kloc-0, a temple was built in the Karnak Temple near the Nile. Its main hall covers an area of about 5,000 square meters and stands 134 huge circular stone pillars, of which the largest 12 is 3.6 meters in diameter and about 2 1 meter in height, which shows its spectacular degree. Under the condition of using stone tools and bronzes three or four thousand years ago, the ancient Egyptians actually built such magnificent buildings as pyramids and temples, which is really a miracle of human history.
Agro-industrial Technology and Primitive Science in Ancient Egypt
Located in the Nile valley in the northeast of Africa, an ancient civilization dominated by agriculture, the Kingdom of Ancient Egypt, appeared before 4000 BC. It is the country with the longest history of slavery in the world and was occupied by foreigners in 525 BC. In terms of technology, ancient Egypt has long influenced neighboring nationalities and left a precious legacy for human civilization. Ancient Egypt was the first country in the world to enter the slave society, so its origin and science and technology based on ideological externalization must be at the highest level of development in the world at that time.
Astronomy and mathematics. Agricultural production in ancient Egypt needs to know the exact date of the Nile flooding, so it is very important to determine the seasons according to the astronomical phenomena, and astronomical knowledge is constantly accumulating and enriching. The ancient Egyptians founded the earliest solar calendar in human history in 2787 BC. The formulation method is to set the day when Sirius and the sun rise on the horizon at the same time (when the Nile begins to flood) as the beginning of a year, with three seasons *** 12 months, 30 days per month, plus 5 days of year-end festivals * * * 365 days a year. This calendar only has a difference of 1/4 days every year, which is the original basis of the Gregorian calendar in the world today. Because the Nile floods every year, it is necessary to re-measure and demarcate the land. After years of work, the ancient Egyptians did more practical exercises in geometry than any other nation at that time, and accumulated a lot of mathematical knowledge. With the construction of water conservancy facilities, temples and pyramids, these mathematical knowledge has been applied and further enriched and developed. The ancient Egyptians used the counting system of 10 to calculate the area of rectangle, triangle, trapezoid and circle, as well as the volume of regular cylinder and truncated square cone. They use pi = 3.1605. Algebraically, the ancient Egyptians could solve linear equations with one variable and some simple quadratic equations with one variable. This knowledge later became the basis for the ancient Greeks to develop mathematics.
Anatomy and medicine. The ancient Egyptians believed that people could continue to live in another world after death, so they dissected the dead and painted them into mummies. As a result, they have accumulated a lot of knowledge about human physiology and anatomy, which is undoubtedly beneficial to their medical development. Doctors in ancient Egypt were able to perform surgical operations to treat eye diseases, toothache, diarrhea, lung diseases and many gynecological diseases. They use all kinds of plants, animals and minerals to make medicines. Medicine in ancient Egypt was the most advanced in the world at that time, and this knowledge later had a great influence on western medicine through the ancient Greeks.
Handicraft technology. Egypt's handicraft industry has also developed to a considerable extent. As early as 2700 BC, the ancient Egyptians built 47-meter-long ships. The technology of making glass was invented in 1600 BC, and the manufacturing technology of pottery, linen fabric, leather, papyrus (used for writing) and jewelry also reached a high level. Ancient Egyptians learned bronze smelting technology before and after the completion of 1500 BC, but copper resources were not rich. Iron was used late, and it was not until the 7th century BC that bronze was generally replaced.
Building technology. Architectural technology is a comprehensive technology, which can largely reflect the overall technical level of a society, especially in ancient times. The most remarkable technological achievement in ancient Egypt in human history is the construction of huge pyramids and temples with stones that still exist today. The pyramids are the tombs of ancient Egyptian pharaohs (kings). The largest of the more than 70 existing pyramids is pyramid of khufu, which was built in 2600 BC. The tower height 146.5 meters, and the bottom is a square with a length of meters. It is made of polished boulders, each weighing an average of 2.5 tons and using about 2.3 million boulders. The stones were not bonded with plaster, and the joints were tight. Temple architecture in ancient Egypt is also amazing. For example, a temple built in Karnak Temple in the14th century BC, near the Nile, has a main hall covering an area of about 5,000 square meters and stands with 134 huge circular stone pillars, of which the largest 12 has a diameter of 3.6 meters and a height of about 2 1 meter, which shows its spectacular degree. Under the condition of using stone tools and bronzes three or four thousand years ago, the ancient Egyptians actually built such magnificent buildings as pyramids and temples, which is really a miracle of human history.
Chronology of ancient Egypt
The first dynasty: 3200 ~ 2850 BC. From menes to Qatar, there are eight pharaohs.
The second dynasty: 2850 ~ 2686 BC. From Hotepseknemoui to kask, there are six pharaohs.
Ancient Kingdom or Memphis Empire (2686 ~ 2 BC181year)
The third dynasty: 2686 ~ 26 BC13 years. From Neteriknet-Djeser in Natri to Houni, * * * has five kings. Jossel's rule was the beginning of power and victory. At this time, a magnificent stone building represented by the stepped pyramid building in Shakala appeared. Imhotep, the architect, writer and scholar of the complex, became one of the first great men in history books. This era is a period of the development of a powerful centralized monarchy. The monarch sat in Memphis and appointed the governor to rule the country.
The fourth dynasty: 26 BC13 ~ 2494. From Snefrou to Skepseskaf, there were six or seven pharaohs. Judging from the grandeur of the pyramids, the rule of Snefru, Khufu and harff was the peak of this era. The pyramids built in Dashar, Merton and Kisa show the good governance and economic prosperity of the dynasty. The fifth dynasty: 2494 ~ 2345 BC. From Uzer to Unas, there were nine pharaohs. The most famous are Sahoure and Djedkare-Isesi.
In the fifth dynasty, the consciousness of "sun worship" developed rapidly, and the famous pyramid inscription was engraved on the wall of the Wunis pyramid in Shakara. The sixth dynasty: 2345 ~ 2 BC181year. From Titi I to Queen Nitocris, the seven kings include Pepi I and Pepy II who lived for hundreds of years.
Although the Sixth Dynasty was famous for its military and commercial expeditions as far away as the southern tip of Africa, Memphis, a place where some governors kept expanding and concentrating in history, was threatened and caused civil strife.
The first transitional period (2181~1991BC)
Seventh dynasty: only ruled for 70 days.
The eighth dynasty: 2 18 1 ~ 2 130 BC. * * * There were eight to twenty-seven pharaohs, but their names were not recorded.
The ninth dynasty to the tenth dynasty: 2 130 ~ 2040 BC in the north. There are six pharaohs, three of whom are called Katie.
Eleventh dynasty: 2 130 ~ 2040 BC in the south. * * * There are three pharaohs.
Montuhotep II unified the whole country in 2050 BC, and the Thebes monarch of the 1 1 dynasty ruled the whole of Egypt. Although this makes their hometown Thebes more and more important, it is still not enough to replace Memphis. The rulers of Thebes had to travel back and forth in fashion, and built palaces and small towns such as Yiti-Tawi at the entrance of Fayoum in the 12 dynasty. The dynasty moved the center of power northward without giving up Thebes, indicating that the powerful centralized government was gradually restored.
The Middle Kingdom or the First Empire of Thebes (BC 199 1 ~ 1786)
The end of the eleventh dynasty: 2060 ~ 2000 BC. Three Montuhot elders unified Egypt for the first time around 2040 BC. Twelfth dynasty: 2000 ~ 1786 BC. Seven pharaohs were named Amon Hamat or Sesot Rees, and the last ruler was Queen Nefirul of Zeebek.
Like other countries in the world, stability and turmoil always appear alternately. The provincial decentralization forces and other forces unknown in history destroyed the Thebes regime inherited from the twelfth dynasty, and Egypt was divided into many vassal States.
The second transitional period (BC 1786 ~ BC 1567)
13th to 14th dynasties: BC 1786 ~ BC 1674. There are about forty pharaohs, some of whom are named Sebehotep. Some pharaohs ruled the northern, central and southern old French areas at the same time. Since BC 1730, these kings have only been vassals of Pharaoh Hikso.
Fifteenth to sixteenth generations: BC 1674 ~ BC 1567. The 16th dynasty is called "Little Sissok" dynasty, which only exists in the eastern delta. There were five pharaohs in the "Great Sissok" dynasty, including one Khyan and two Apopi.
Seventeenth dynasty: BC 1674 ~ 1567. Ten pharaohs ruled Thebes and its surrounding areas. They are vassals of Sissok. The last three pharaohs, Ta 'a I, Ta 'a II and Ka Mosis, began to struggle with the Sissok people in the north.
The New Kingdom or the Second Kingdom of Thebes (BC 1567 ~ 1085)
Eighteenth dynasty: 1567 ~ 1320 BC. From Ahmosis to Horan Heb, * * * has fourteen monarchs, including four Bittemos and four Amenorfis. Empress Ashipusu, Empress Ahnatun and Empress Tutankhamun all belonged to this dynasty.
The 19 dynasty: 1320 ~ 1200 BC. Nine pharaohs of Ramses, including Ramesses I II and seti i II.
Twentieth dynasty: BC 1200 ~ 1085. Ten monarchs, except the first named Sethnakht, are all named Ramses.
The third transitional period (BC 1085 ~ 7 15 years)
The 2nd1dynasty: 65438 BC+0085 BC ~ 945 BC. In tanis, there are Daisy, Pusunas I and II. Rehor and Pinajem ruled Thebes.
Handicraft industry in ancient Egypt
Almost every Egyptian has something to do with agriculture. They are either landowners or farmers who cultivate the land. Farmers know the fluctuation rhythm of Nile water and combine this rhythm with exquisite irrigation system, so they can grow a variety of crops.
Farmland in Egypt is flooded by the Nile for three to four months every year. After the flood receded, fertile river silt was left behind and agriculture began. First, turn the field twice with a plow pulled by cattle, loosen the deposited soil before sowing, and then let the livestock step on the seeds. Crops planted include wheat, barley, flax, fruits and vegetables, such as onions, garlic, salads, peas, lentils and green beans. The irrigation of farmland uses intercepting ditches (some small ditches with waterways leading to the Nile for water intake) and "Shaduf", a counterweight bucket that can scoop the river water to the catchment ditch at the edge of the field.
First, the occurrence of Egyptian civilization.
Natural environment and residents
Egypt is located in the northeast of Africa. It borders the Mediterranean Sea in the north, the Red Sea in the east, Nubia (now Ethiopia and Sudan) in the south and Libya in the west. Geographically speaking, both sides of Egypt are deserts, and there are several large shoals in the south, so it is difficult to communicate with the outside world. Only through the Sinai Peninsula in the northeast can we communicate with West Asia more conveniently. Therefore, ancient Egypt was isolated.
The Nile runs through Egypt and is formed by the confluence of the White Nile originating in Central Africa and the Blue Nile originating in Sudan. The Nile, which flows through forests and grasslands, floods regularly from July to June every year, 165438+ 10, and irrigates the dry land on both sides. Sediment containing a lot of minerals and humus flows down the river and gradually deposits on both banks, becoming fertile black soil. The ancient Egyptians therefore called their country "Kemet" (meaning "black land"). Herodotus, an ancient Greek historian, said, "Egypt is a gift from the Nile."
Since ancient times, Egypt has been geographically divided into narrow valley areas (Upper Egypt) and relatively open and flat Nile Delta areas (Lower Egypt). It hardly rains all the year round in the valleys of Egypt, and the climate is very dry. Water for production and living depends entirely on the Nile. Only the northern delta is affected by the Mediterranean monsoon.
From a large number of sculptures and paintings left by ancient Egypt, we can see that the ancient Egyptians are characterized by tall figure, dark hair, low forehead, thick eyelashes, dark eyes, straight nose, wide face, wide shoulders, dark skin and strong physique. Their body shape and appearance are different from those of ancient Libyans and Nubians, and they are also different from those of ancient Asians, and they have their own unique characteristics.
The emergence of civilization
Egypt is one of the cradles of human civilization, which experienced its own Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods. Egyptian Neolithic culture (Merimda culture on the western edge of the delta, Fayong culture in central Egypt, Tasa-Badali culture, etc. ) is a mixed culture of agriculture and animal husbandry. Although it is still controversial when and where Egypt's agriculture originated, its agricultural culture was quite developed in 6000-5000 BC, and the use of bronzes laid the foundation for the early emergence of its civilization.
The ancient kingdom period was a period of great development of slavery economy in ancient Egypt. The unification of the country has created a relatively stable environment for social and economic development; The construction of larger-scale irrigation system provides important conditions for the development of agriculture. All major crops (such as barley, wheat, flax, grapes, figs, etc. What later generations planted in Egypt was already planted during the ancient kingdom. In terms of farm tools, slave owners used heavy plows pulled by two cows economically, which was much more advanced than using simple wooden plows to cultivate land. From the paintings in the tombs of nobles, it can be seen that the agricultural technology is relatively primitive as a whole, but because the silt deposited after the Nile flooded is very fertile, the grain output can still feed the huge ruling class state machine and the vast number of craftsmen in the ancient kingdom.
The development of agricultural production provides important conditions for the development of handicrafts. Construction, mining, metallurgy, metal processing and manufacturing are all well developed. In recent years, hundreds of bronze statues unearthed at the entrance of the pyramid of Ushekafo, the king of the Fifth Dynasty, show that the handicraft industry in the ancient kingdom period was very developed, and Egypt may have entered the Bronze Age at this time. The pyramids and their affiliated buildings (temples) not only illustrate the superb architectural level at this time, but also illustrate the development of mining and transportation. It can be seen from the names of some kings in the ancient kingdom left by Sinai that at least at this time, the Egyptians had been mining copper in Sinai. Animal husbandry, which mainly raised pigs, sheep, cows and donkeys, occupied a certain position in the economy of the ancient kingdom. Especially in the delta area rich in aquatic plants, there are good conditions for developing animal husbandry.
National unity and social and economic development provide conditions for the development of domestic and foreign trade. However, the domestic trade of the ancient kingdom remained at the level of barter. The street barter scene painted in the Tomb of the Noble can be used as evidence. The housing sales contract left at this time is also an example of this situation. The wages of craftsmen are paid in kind, such as oil, bread, vegetables, clothes, etc. Occasionally, there is copper, but not as money, but like other physical objects, it is mentioned in the inscriptions of many noble tombs. Foreign trade is controlled by the state, and the state or the king often sends caravans abroad. This foreign trade is often combined with foreign plunder. In the economy of the ancient kingdom, the royal family economy, the temple economy and the bureaucratic aristocratic slave owner economy accounted for a large proportion, which can be said to be dominant. They occupy a large amount of land and labor and have extremely strong economic strength. In their economy, including agriculture, handicrafts, animal husbandry, fisheries, gardening and other parts, they are basically a self-sufficient whole, rarely need to go to the market to buy goods, and have little contact with the market. In the ancient kingdom, there were roughly the following types of land occupation: land occupied by the state (including Nome), land occupied by kings, land occupied by temples, and land occupied by bureaucrats and nobles. There is no direct information about small producers or rural communes. The inscription on the tomb of Mei Teng, a great official who lived at the turn of 3-4 dynasties, said that he got 200 figurines of cultivated land (1 figurine is equal to 2375 square meters) from Nisutiu ("people of the king"). It is speculated that these Nissuti people may be small producers or commune members, but they can't say anything exact because of the lack of more information.
All kinds of slave owners not only exploit slaves, but also exploit other workers who have lost the means of production. In the ancient kingdom, they mainly exploited a laborer named Maite. Due to economic development and other reasons, a large number of workers lost their land, or went to work on the land of slave owners to get rations and clothes, or rented the land of slave owners and paid taxes. In the tombs of nobles, farmers were tied up and hanged because they could not pay the rent, which shows that the situation of workers is very miserable. Farmers in the ancient kingdom had to perform hard labor and military service, and their burden must be very heavy.
Monarchical autocracy In the ancient kingdom period, the autocratic monarchy in Egypt began to be established, which can be seen from many aspects.
King's control over executive power: In the ancient kingdom, the king was the symbol and representative of state power. Under the king, there is a Prime Minister (called Visir by modern Egyptian scholars in Arabic), who presides over daily affairs and is in charge of administrative, judicial, economic and religious affairs, with considerable power. But the decision is not in the hands of wiesel, but in the hands of the king. Visil also has no military power. Vesil was appointed by the king, as were other senior officials. These officials are all responsible to the king and thank him for his favor.