Near east alphabet
Cuneiform characters in the Near East usually take the form of unbaked and baked clay tablets, which are used by scribes to record administrative information and communication between rulers, whether with subordinate local governors or foreign counterparts. The scope of letters eventually expanded to include all topics from history to curse, and as papyrus scrolls became the preferred medium, the materials also changed. The latter is usually written in Aramaic. A letter usually shows the names of the sender and the recipient at the top, with the superlative appearing first. Others said that this letter should be read to the recipient (including the possibility that they can't see it). Then there is the formulaic greeting standard, which applies to most letters, and then the text.
The most famous postal system in the Near East is ANGAREION in Persia, where there is a stopover point in PIRRADAZIS.
For tablets and reels that need to be sent to a specific destination, please use express delivery. This work is done for the country, and it is of great responsibility, because the messenger is responsible for the letters that arrive where they should. Fortunately, for nervous messengers who have to travel long distances, the state provides a network to rest and change their mounts. Communication between private people did happen, but at the expense of the interests of the people concerned, who could not use the national postal system.
The most famous postal system in the Near East is angareion in Persia, which has a stopover point in pirradazis, a day's drive. The network is paid and maintained by the local communities through which it passes, and the carriers are provided with their rations and mounts, as long as they produce the officially sealed access documents. In his history (Bk. 8.98), Herodotus praised the flexible messenger of the system, which can relay at high speed regardless of the weather. In fact, the Central Post Office in new york requisitioned the words of Greek historians in the 5th century BC. At the post office, a sign reads:
Snow, rain, heat or night will not stop these couriers from finishing their appointments quickly.
Ancient Egyptian alphabet
As in the Near East, Egyptian letters are written on clay tablets and papyrus. Some of these letters are also engraved on stone tablets and written in many languages, especially Akkadian. Letters from Egypt, at least from the rulers, are usually particularly vague and full of formulaic expressions and flattery, just for the benefit of the recipients. An interesting feature of the Egyptian alphabet is the use of templates for less confident or inexperienced scribes to copy. As in the Near East, officials are keen to keep a copy of an important letter in case it is lost, especially in temples and fortresses in Egypt.
In the new kingdom, royal letters are delivered by the messenger system. These messengers usually use carriages to get to the kingdom as soon as possible. Like the Near East, they have places to change horses regularly and refresh themselves, although some people sail along the Nile and its tributaries by boat. The second postal network is responsible for handling administrative letters in this state. As a hierarchical structure, messengers deliver letters at all levels. We can imagine that private people occasionally send letters to each other, but these letters have no special way to reach their destinations (although some people doubt whether the royal messengers here and elsewhere are addicted to a little * * *). Then, the best choice is to either use slaves or send the letter to a trustworthy traveler who happens to be heading in the right direction.
Letters from the Greek world
The earliest letter mentioned in the Greek world was written in Homer's Iliad sometime in the 8th century BC. Proetus sent a folding tablet computer, which was brought by Bellerophon. Next, Herodotus in the 5th century BC described a series of correspondence between Samos King Amassis and tyrant Polly Claudius. In 522 BC. The oldest physical example of the Greek alphabet is three pieces of thin lead, which can be traced back to BC. 500 BC. Other materials used include pottery limestone, animal skin, tablets coated with a mixture of beeswax and carbon, and sawdust with a blackened or brightened surface. However, as in Egypt, the preferred form of writing information is papyrus. Greeks usually do not use scrolls, but fold their papyrus documents into several pages, tie them with ropes, and then stamp them to ensure that only the intended recipients can read them. Pens are usually made of reeds and dipped in ink, but a stylus is used when writing on wax or clay boards. There was no postal network in ancient Greece, but there were special couriers and courier boats.
One of the most interesting sources of information about the Greek alphabet is the information sent by the Greek king (many of which were copied to stone tablets). They were the whole royal administration that encouraged them to cover and practice how Greece was particularly useful in the Mediterranean after the collapse of Alexander the Great's empire in the United States from 323 BC. The Kingdom of Greece did create a postal network equipped and maintained by the rich as a form of taxation.
Letters from the Roman world
The Romans, who were loved by men and women, continued to write letters on papyrus, but sometimes they also used parchment and tanned leather. Papyrus letters are bound and sealed, although the latter can only take the form of drawing a few ink lines on rope and paper. Since the 3rd century BC, there has been a significant increase in private letters, although communicators still have to find their own ways to send them, such as reliable travelers such as friends, slaves and businessmen. On the other hand, emperors and officials can use the national postal system-Tacitus. Augustus (in 27 BC-A.D. 14) was recorded by Suetonius (c. 69- 130/ 140 CE) as creating a Roman postal system (perhaps more accurately described as a communication system) in order to better manage his huge empire. The system first uses iuvenes, from the sender to the receiver, and then their relay. Providing food rations and fresh vehicles (vehicles) to couriers at regular stations along the120,000 km (75,000 miles) expressway network makes information spread about 80 km (50 miles) every day.
There are two types of stations-one has accommodation facilities (luxury houses), and the other is just a place designed to exchange transportation (mutation). The inscription of Pisidia Station in southern Turkey can be traced back to 1 century, which records the exact number of donkeys, mules and carts that couriers have the right to obtain, provided that they carry official authorization (diploma). Finally, cursus publicus is divided into two branches, which are distinguished by whether the messenger is riding a horse (cursus clavularis) or riding a horse (cursus velox). Roman laws and regulations show that the national postal system has indeed encountered some problems, such as private abuse, difficulty in obtaining animals, illegal sale of postal coupons and so on. All these are operated on the basis of collection and labor tax, so the postal system has become one of the most unpopular interventions of the state in local communities.
The Romans wrote some manuals, including sample letters and academic comments on how to write letters well.
Roman letters rarely date, and usually begin with some greetings, hoping that the recipient will be healthy. The closing ceremony may also be very long. Oral letters are still common, but the sender may sometimes add a few lines at the end himself. Perhaps this is strange for our modern view of writing. It is still rare for letters to express any personal details, ideas and opinions. Most letters are limited to facts and events. However, several books are collections of letters from celebrities, especially Cicero (BC 106-43), Pliny Junior (BC 61-KLOC-0/2) and Emperor Julian (BC 36 1-363) The Romans seem keen to do everything well. They also wrote some letter samples and an academic review manual on how to write a good letter (usually when considering rhetorical skills). An example is the works of Julius Victor in the 4th century A.D.. We also know from the letters that the Romans had teachers who wrote letters.
Letter writing really rose in the early Christian period. At present, the literacy rate of adult males in Rome is about 30%, while it is about 65,438+00% in classical Greece and only 65,438+0% in ancient Near East (Oleson, 734). Historian J. Ebbeller described the period from 200 to 600 A.D. as the "golden age of writing letters" in ancient times (Barchiesi, 468), because the Roman elite accepted Cicero's comment in one of his own letters: When I can't talk to you personally, I won't write to you or read your letter (letter to his friend,12.30.30).
Letters from the Byzantine Empire
Perhaps people were also inspired by letters from Sao Paulo and others. In the Eastern Roman Empire, later the Byzantine Empire, some letters were so respected that they had to be read out in front of the audience. This is the importance of the national postal system. One of the three highest ministers in Constantinople was appointed as the symbol of the king. In the 4th century, people paid more and more attention to writing letters and made more manuals to guide people. For Byzantines, a good letter should now include three elements: syntomia, sapheneia and charis. Another fashion is to add some extra content to beautify letters, such as adding beautiful quotations, proverbs and riddles in the margin. Finally, the Byzantines are keen to make the best impression, so they often send gifts with letters, such as fruits, clothes or precious stones. Letters and gifts are delivered by a special letter delivery tool called grammatophoroi.
China and Inca.
An overview of ancient letters and postal systems can hardly cover all civilizations, but it should at least include the recognition of two other cultures outside the Mediterranean, which developed their own complex and fast communication networks: China and Inca.
China people began to write with ink and paper at least in the 2nd century A.D. Their communication network existed in the Warring States Period (5th to 3rd century B.C.) to a certain extent, and really existed in the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-220 A.D.). Ruling a huge empire requires fast and reliable communication. It is said that the Han emissary can transmit the information of the empire at a speed of 480 kilometers (300 miles) in 24 hours, although it seems that this is less than half. In Song Dynasty (960- 1279), messengers could travel on roads or rivers, benefiting from 1600 post stations.
In South America, the Incas (about 1400- 1533) may not have any letters to deliver-their records are not written in the form of a complicated knotted rope Kip-but they do have an amazing messenger system. Runners (chaski or chasquis) run by relay, and verbally transmit information to the new runners stationed every 6-9 kilometers. In this way, messages can be transmitted as much as 240 kilometers (150 miles) along a network with a total of 40,000 kilometers (25,000 miles) of dedicated roads in one day. Obviously, the ancients in almost all places at that time were as concerned about how to send and receive information quickly and reliably as we are today. They set up an impressive communication network. If our technology suddenly fails, we will be unparalleled today.