China has a long history. It has a history of more than 5,000 years since Ji Xuanyuan (2698- 2598 BC) in the era of the Yellow Emperor.
The clan commune has experienced two stages: matriarchal clan commune and paternal clan commune.
Yuanmou Man is the earliest known human being in China. Beijingers are typical primitive people. Neanderthals lived the life of a clan commune. Hemudu clan in the Yangtze River basin and Banpo clan in the Yellow River basin are the prosperous periods of matriarchal clan communes. The middle and late Dawenkou culture reflects the patriarchal commune.
Legendary times
According to legend, the Yellow Emperor was the leader of the primitive tribal alliance that lived in the Yellow River valley about 4000 years ago.
After the Yellow Emperor, the outstanding leaders of tribal alliances in the Yellow River valley were Yao, Shun and Yu in turn. At that time, the leader of the tribal alliance was elected. When Yao was old, a tribal alliance meeting was held, and everyone elected the talented Shun as his successor. After Yao's death, Shun inherited Yao's position. When Shun was old, he also used the same method to give up his position to Yu, who had made contributions to water control. This method of changing the position of the leader is called "abdication". ?
Xia, Shang and Zhou dynasties
Xia Dynasty
From the 2nd1century BC to the 6th century BC, it was the first dynasty in China-Xia Dynasty. It marks the basic end of tens of thousands of years of primitive society in China and the beginning of thousands of years of class society. His birth became an important milestone in the history of China civilization. The Xia dynasty had 14 generations 17 kings, which lasted nearly 500 years.
Yu Xia made great contributions to water control and became the founder of Xia Dynasty.
Yu was honored as Dayu because of his great achievements in fighting floods and conquering Li Temple. After Dayu's death, his son broke the tradition of abdication and became king on his own, restoring the ancient system of father-son transmission in the early days of the Yellow Emperor Dynasty. From then on, the descendants of the throne were not passed on to the sages, and the hereditary system was implemented, which began what the ancients called "home is in the world." This is a kind of political progress.
After Xia Qi ascended the throne, he inherited Dayu's career. Unfortunately, after his death, his son Taikang was incompetent and was driven away by Hou Yi, the leader of the princes and the legendary Chang 'e's husband. After his death, Hou Yi made Zhong Kang, Taikang's younger brother, King Xia, but the real power was in the hands of Hou Yi. After Zhong Kang's death, his sons stood side by side. Hou Yi was killed by his courtier Han Zhuo, and he stood on his own feet. When Xiang was killed, Queen Xiang became pregnant and fled to Yoyo to give birth to Shao Kang. When Shao Kang grew up, he assembled the remnants of the Xia Dynasty, destroyed Han Zhuo and restored the Xia Dynasty. History is called "Shao Kang Zhongxing". When Zhou, the son of Shao Kang, was in office, he had a relatively strong armed force, completely eliminated the influence of Han Zhuo, conquered Dongyi, and made the Xia Dynasty reach its peak. After the Five Dynasties and Six Kings, the society was relatively stable and the economy continued to develop. Xia Dynasty ruled the East China Sea, with Xihe River in the west, Yanshan Mountain in the north and Jianghuai in the south. At that time, it was able to smelt better bronze, produced a large number of bronze production tools and household appliances, and developed commodity exchange. One of the more advanced methods is to combine the calendar of yin and yang, and record the day in part. Kong Jia, the first 15 king of Xia Dynasty, was good at witchcraft and fornication, which led to the rebellion of governors and the gradual decline of Xia Dynasty. Kong Jia spread to Lv Gui (Xia Jie) many times, a famous tyrant in history. He didn't work for Xiu De, was extravagant and dissipated, killed countless people, and used soldiers everywhere, wasting people and money, so that the people rebelled and the princes rebelled, and was finally destroyed by Shang Tang.
Shang Dynasty
Legend has it that merchants are descendants of their son Qi. Because Qi assisted Yu in water control, he was named a merchant by Shun and began to rise. After 500 years of development, it has become a powerful square country with milli as its capital by the time of Tang. With the help of Yi Yin, Cheng Tang first won the support of many countries and conquered the countries that did not submit. At last, he set out to cut the summer and sounded the golden bell to retreat. Xia Jie fled to the South Nest and died, and established the Shang Dynasty.
Although the newly established Shang Dynasty is no different from the Xia Dynasty in social form, its birth injected new vitality into ancient society and perfected the mechanism of ancient class society. Therefore, ancient books fully affirmed that Shang Tang attacked Jie and destroyed Xia.
When Shang Tang's grandson Tai Jia was in power, there was nothing he could do. Yi Yin exiled him, regent himself. In the past three years, Tai Jia repented, welcomed back to the motherland, worked diligently and loved the people, attached to the princes, and maintained social stability, so he was called Taizong, the Lord of perseverance. From then on, until the ninth son of heaven, Emperor Taizu, it was a period of consolidation and development of the dynasty. In the Eight Dynasties of Yong, there was a situation in which the governors did not go to court. Taiwu succeeded to the throne. With the help of Yi Yin and Wu Xian, Yin Dao was revived, and the princes joined in. Taiwu was called Zhongzong.
From the 10th Emperor Zhong Ding, the Shang royal family was in chaos. In order to save the crisis of the dynasty, Pan Geng moved the capital from Xingyi to Yin, which made the situation stable and the politics, economy and culture began to develop rapidly. History says that Pan Geng moved to Yin. Wu Ding, the twenty-second generation of Shang Dynasty, grew up in the countryside and knew well the sufferings of the people and the hardships of farming. He wisely promoted Fu Shuo from slaves, made great efforts to reform politics, made nobles and civilians complain, sent troops to pacify the harassment of nomadic peoples such as Turks and ghosts, and made a large-scale crusade against Jing and Chu. The influence of Shang Dynasty reached its peak in all directions.
Since the twenty-fourth generation of Wang Zujia, social contradictions have intensified, and the Yin Dynasty has gradually seen a scene of decline and chaos. The 27th generation of Wang Wuyi had no choice but to fill his skin with blood and shoot it on his back, which is called shooting the sky. Later, when he was hunting in the river, he was electrocuted. In the thirtieth generation of Zhou Wang, the struggle between kingship and aristocratic power reached a climax. Zhou Wang is smart, self-willed, pretentious, abusive, drunk and dreaming, drinking as a pool, hanging meat as a forest, and bingeing all night. Zhou Wang set the brand of punishment, wantonly killing princes and nobles. Abuse of prisoners aggravated the accumulation of wealth and made princes and nobles and kings rebel. When the crisis deepened, Zhou Wang sent troops to crusade against the surrounding tribes on a large scale, pacifying Dongyi, which consumed a lot of manpower and material resources and accelerated the demise of Shang Dynasty. The Western Zhou people took the opportunity to develop and finally destroyed the Shang Dynasty.
Zhou dynasty
Western Zhou Dynasty
The Western Zhou Dynasty (BC 1066- BC 77 1) lasted for more than 300 years, which was an important period for China and the heyday of China's classical civilization. Legend has it that the ancestors of the Zhou Dynasty were abandoned by Di Ku's son Yuan Fei Jiangyuan. Gradually developed into a new western power, calling itself Zhou. Zhou's development made Shang and Zhou feel threatened, so he imprisoned Xi Bochang in Youli for seven years. The Zhou Dynasty redeemed Xibo with treasures and beautiful women, and Xibochang developed production in Xiu De, which made more governors come to join, became the so-called master of orders, claimed to be the king, that is, Zhou Wenwang, and moved the capital to Fengyi. Zhou Wenwang is dead. His son succeeded to the throne and was called King Wu. Continue the unfinished business of Wang Wen. Expand the capital to Haojing, east of Fengshui. In December of the eleventh year of King Wen, King Wu went out of Tongguan to join forces with governors of various countries and moved eastward. On Jiazi Day in February of the following year, the Shang army was defeated in Mu Ye, killing Yin, which was known as destroying Shang in history, and the Zhou Dynasty, the longest dynasty in the history of China, was established.
After Wu Zhou, Dafeng heroic counselor personally crusaded against Dongyi, making Dongyi stable. After the death of King Cheng, King Kang, who succeeded to the throne, inherited his predecessor's career, made great efforts to cure diseases for the people, and the punishment was not used for decades, making the society more stable.
The political clarity of the three generations of Wu, Cheng and Kang was the golden age of Zhou. When Wang Zhao appeared, there was a crisis.
The Zhou Dynasty gradually declined, and the four generations of * * * Wang, * * Wang and Xiao Wang fell into a long-term war because of the constant intrusion of the surrounding military, which consumed a lot of national strength and had to intensify the exploitation of the people, and the domestic contradictions became increasingly acute. Some nobles also began to go bankrupt, showing their aversion to reality.
Zhou Liwang, who succeeded to the throne, did not take measures to appease the people and develop people's livelihood. Instead, he appointed courtiers, squandered money, and fought abroad for years. He even deprived and monopolized Yamazawa's interests, causing people's dissatisfaction and discussion. He sent a wizard to watch, killed the arguer and made the contradiction more acute. Three years later, the angry residents of Haojing finally launched a riot and exiled Li Wang to Zhou Wang and Wei Xiao, where * * * was in power, which was known as * * * and. * * * And in the first year, that is, 84 BC1year, the history of China has a clear and continuous chronology since this year. After Zhou Liwang's death, his son Wang Xuan reorganized the state affairs, which once revived the Zhou Dynasty. However, by the 12th Emperor Zhou Youwang, the crisis of the dynasty was more serious. There are serious natural disasters in Guanzhong area, such as earthquakes, landslides, and river cuts. Instead of providing compensation to the victims, Zhou Youwang has become more extravagant, corrupt and insatiable. In order to win the smile of the favored princess, you Wang tricked the princes into coming to him with bonfires. The most serious problem is that the King of Jin decided to abolish the Queen Shen, kill the Prince Yijiu, and make the Queen and her son the Prince. Later, Shen Hou, Shen's father, joined forces with the tribes of the Western Regions to attack, killing you Wang at the foot of Lishan Mountain, and later praised him. When Yi Jiu, the son of Wang You, ascended the throne, Guanzhong was looted by soldiers' fire, and the dogs came to harass him from time to time. Zhou Pingwang had to move its capital to Luoyi in September, and it was called Dong Qian in Wang Ping in history, which began in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty.
the Spring and Autumn Period
The Spring and Autumn Period, referred to as the Spring and Autumn Period for short, was from 770 to 476 years ago (conversely, from 770 to 403 years ago), belonging to the Eastern Zhou Dynasty. During the Spring and Autumn Period, Zhou Wang's influence weakened, and the princes fought with each other. Qi Huangong, Jin Wengong, Song Xianggong, Qin Mugong and Chu Zhuangwang successively dominated, and were called "the five tyrants in the Spring and Autumn Period". . The Spring and Autumn Period was followed by the Warring States Period.
Chunqiu was named after Confucius revised Chunqiu. This book records the history from the year of Luyin (722 BC) to the fourteenth year of Lu Aigong (48 BC1year). For convenience, modern scholars generally call the first year (770 BC) the founding of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty to the forty-third year (477 BC) the "Spring and Autumn Period".
According to historical records, in the Spring and Autumn Period of 242 years, 43 monarchs were killed by vassal states or enemy countries, 52 vassal states were destroyed, there were more than 480 wars, and vassals were hired and allied for more than 450 times.
Therefore, wars were frequent during this period. According to statistics, there were 230 wars from the first year of Zhou Yuanwang (475 BC) to the twenty-sixth year of Qin (22 BC1year). When the war broke out, both sides dispatched tens of thousands to hundreds of thousands of people at every turn. At the end of the Western Han Dynasty, Liu Xiang compiled all kinds of historical materials into a book called The Warring States Policy. Since then, this historical stage has been called the Warring States Period.
Qin and Han dynasties
The Qin Dynasty was the first unified multi-ethnic autocratic and centralized feudal country in the history of China. A series of measures taken by Qin Shihuang to consolidate autocratic centralization had a great influence on later generations. After the unification of Qin Dynasty, in order to prevent the Huns from invading the south, on the basis of connecting the original Great Wall in the northern part of Qin, Zhao and Yan countries, it extended to the east and west, from Lintao in the west to Liaodong in the east, and built a city defense. This is the famous Great Wall of Wan Li. The tyranny of Qin rulers led to the outbreak of peasant war and the demise of Qin dynasty.
The Han Dynasty, which appeared after the short Qin Dynasty in China's history, was divided into two historical periods: the Western Han Dynasty (202-8 BC) and the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220 AD), which later historians also called the Han Dynasty.
The Western Han Dynasty was founded by Emperor Gaozu Liu Bang, with Chang 'an as its capital. The Eastern Han Dynasty was founded by Liu Xiu, Emperor Guangwu of Han Dynasty, with Luoyang as its capital. In the meantime, there was a brief new dynasty (AD 8-23) in which Wang Mang usurped the Han Dynasty and stood on his own feet. In addition, some scholars listed Shu Han as a continuation of the Han Dynasty and classified it as a part of the Han Dynasty, so that the Han Dynasty died in 263, but most of them classified the Shu Han regime established by Liu Bei as the history of the Three Kingdoms.
From the Emperor Gaozu to the Han Dynasty, the economic strength soared, becoming the first empire in the East, and being called two empires together with western Rome. The powers in Central Asia and the Western Regions are also frightened. By the time of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, the Han Empire had become the most powerful empire in the world, and the Xiongnu Empire was defeated and fled to the north. Zhang Qian's mission to the Western Regions opened up the famous "Silk Road" for the first time, and opened the channel of East-West trade. From then on, China became the center of the world trade system until the Mongolian rebellion more than 1000 years later. It is precisely because the voice of the Han Dynasty spread far and wide that foreigners began to call China "Han", and Han people were happy to call themselves that. Since then, "Han" has become the eternal name of the Chinese nation in China.
At first, in the Han Dynasty, Emperor Gaozu Liu Bangshi judged Zhengshuo as Shuide according to the five virtues, and it was revised as Tude when Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty. It was not until Wang Mang established a new dynasty and adopted Liu Xiang and Liu Xin's father and son that he thought that the Han Dynasty belonged to Huode. After the restoration of the Han Dynasty, Emperor Guangwu officially acknowledged this statement, and from then on, it was established that the orthodox moon of the Han Dynasty was a fire virtue, which was adopted in the historical books of the Eastern Han Dynasty and later, such as Hanshu and the History of the Three Kingdoms. Therefore, the Han Dynasty was sometimes called "Han Yan", and it was also called "Yan Liu" because the emperor of the Han Dynasty was surnamed Liu.
The second unified dynasty in China was founded by Liu Bang, the Emperor Gaozu. Chang 'an is the capital of its early period, also known as the Western Han Dynasty and the Pre-Han Dynasty. In the later period, Luoyang was the capital, also known as the Eastern Han Dynasty and the Later Han Dynasty. The Western Han Dynasty was a prosperous dynasty in the early feudal society of China. It inherited and consolidated the unified country that began in the Qin Dynasty, with prosperous economy, strong national strength and happy people, showing a scene of peace and prosperity. During this period, China has been standing in the world as a world power. Therefore, the Western Han Dynasty is regarded as the first golden age in the history of China. In the Western Han Dynasty, * * * spread to the 14th Emperor, which lasted 2 10 years.
The Western Han Dynasty is an important period in the development history of the Chinese nation, and the core Han nationality of all ethnic groups in China appeared in this period. Since the unification of China by Qin Shihuang, the cultures of various countries infiltrated and merged in the pre-Warring States period. In the Western Han Dynasty, China gradually unified in many aspects, such as laws and regulations, language, culture and education, customs and habits, thus forming the * * * China culture. Since then, a unified Han nationality has emerged among all ethnic groups in China. Both the Han nationality and the surrounding ethnic minorities were members of the multi-ethnic countries in China in the Han Dynasty. Because of its high degree of civilization, the Han nationality has always been in a dominant position among the fraternal nationalities in China, which is the result of historical development and natural formation. Since the Han Dynasty, although the name of the dynasty has changed, the status of the Han nationality as the main ethnic group in China has never changed.
Three Kingdoms, Jin Dynasty, Southern and Northern Dynasties
From the establishment of Wei by Cao Pi in 220 AD to the unification of Sui Dynasty in 589 AD, it was a period of great ethnic integration and division in China history.
After the heavy blow of the Yellow turban insurrectionary, the Eastern Han regime existed in name only. In the process of suppressing the uprising, some military groups of one side appeared. Cao Cao defeated Yuan Shao in Guandu and basically unified the North. Battle of Red Cliffs and Cao Cao were defeated and returned to the north. The positions of Sun Quan and Liu Bei were consolidated. In 220, Cao Pi proclaimed himself emperor and built Wei; 22 1 year, Liu Bei proclaimed himself emperor and built Shu Han; In 222, Sun Quan called Wang Jianwu, and the tripartite confrontation was formed. During the Three Kingdoms period, the economies of all countries were developed.
In the late Three Kingdoms period, Wei's power became stronger and stronger. In 263, Wei was destroyed. In 265, Sima Yan seized the Wei regime and established the Jin Dynasty, known in history as the Western Jin Dynasty. In 280, the Western Jin Dynasty wiped out Wu, ending the tripartite confrontation among the three countries. The unification of the Western Jin Dynasty was short-lived. Due to the increasingly sharp class contradictions and ethnic contradictions, ethnic minorities and refugees who moved into various parts of the country constantly revolted and rebelled, which eventually led to the demise of the Western Jin Dynasty.
After the demise of the Western Jin Dynasty, Si Marui, the royal family, established political power in the south of the Yangtze River, which was called the Eastern Jin Dynasty in history. The rulers of all ethnic groups in the north have successively established many countries, which are called sixteen countries in history. In 383, the Eastern Jin Dynasty won the water war between the former Qin Dynasty and the Eastern Jin Dynasty and unified the Yellow River basin. Soon, the former Qin dynasty collapsed, forming a situation of confrontation between the north and the south. In the south, after the Eastern Jin Dynasty, it experienced four dynasties: Song Dynasty, Qi Dynasty, Liang Dynasty and Chen Dynasty, which was called the Southern Dynasty in history. In the north, it experienced the Northern Wei Dynasty, the Eastern Wei Dynasty, the Western Wei Dynasty, the Northern Qi Dynasty and the Northern Five Dynasties, which was called the Northern Dynasty in history. During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, Jiangnan was developed and all ethnic groups in the north were merged. The reform of Emperor Xiaowen in the Northern Wei Dynasty promoted national integration.
During the Three Kingdoms, the Jin Dynasty and the Southern and Northern Dynasties, due to the great integration of all ethnic groups and the economic development in the North and South, science and culture further developed and made world-leading achievements in many fields.
Sui and Tang Dynasties
In 58 1 year, Emperor Wendi of Sui replaced Zhou Jiansui as Emperor Wendi of Sui Dynasty. In the ninth year of Emperor Di (AD 589), Emperor Wen of Sui Dynasty went south to destroy Chen. At this point, China, which has been in turmoil for more than 400 years, has once again entered a period of reunification. Unfortunately, the Sui Dynasty was short-lived, and it was only 38 years since it spread to san huang. By 6 18, it was usurped by Li Yuan. Sui and Tang Dynasties lasted for 327 years, which was the heyday of China feudal society.
Sui dynasty reform
Emperor Wendi of Sui Dynasty was an enlightened emperor, and he carried out many reforms. Politically, he strengthened feudal centralization of authority by establishing a political system of "three provinces and six departments"; The imperial examination system was established, and officials were selected through examinations, breaking the long-term hereditary system; It has also formulated a simple legal system. Economically, he adopted the farmland system since the Northern Dynasties, which promoted the development of agriculture. Promoted the prosperity of handicraft industry and commerce. Political reform and economic development have created conditions for the gradual convergence of social consciousness, resulting in the coexistence of orthodox Confucian classics and Buddhist culture, correcting the bias of taking Buddhism as the state religion in the Northern Dynasties and prevailing empty talk in the Southern Dynasties, and promoting the convergence of ideological culture between the North and the South and the development of Sino-foreign exchanges. There were many new achievements in the art of the Sui Dynasty, such as architecture, sculpture, painting, music and dance.
After the middle and late Tang dynasty
The conflict between the buffer region and the central government became increasingly antagonistic, and the power struggle between the old and new bureaucrats, eunuchs and cronies became increasingly acute, eventually leading to the turmoil of "Five Dynasties and Ten Countries". During this period, the economy was depressed and the people were miserable. Only Jinling, Chengdu and other places have maintained relative prosperity and progress because of their superior geographical location and fewer wars.
late tang dynasty
Huang Chao failed, and the leader of the buffer region became independent. In 907 AD, Zhu Wen succeeded to the throne as Tang and was founded as Liang, which is known in history. Since then, there have been five generations in the North (Hou Liang, Later Tang Dynasty, Later Jin Dynasty, Later Han Dynasty and Later Zhou Dynasty), which are collectively called "Five Dynasties" by historians. In the south, nine parallel separatist regimes appeared at the same time, namely, Wu, wuyue, Chu, Nanhan, Fujian, Nanping, Houshu and Nantang. Together with the Northern Han Dynasty, which made Taiyuan its capital at the same time as the later Zhou Dynasty, these nine separatist regimes are collectively called "Ten Countries". China is once again at war. Until 960 AD, Zhao Kuangyin Chen Qiao mutiny, seized the power of the Hou Zhou Dynasty, established the Song Dynasty, and China once again restored the situation of reunification.
Five Dynasties and Ten States
At the end of the Tang Dynasty, the glorious Tang Empire finally collapsed due to the disaster of Zhenchao, the chaos of eunuchs, the chaos of Huang Chao and the factional strife. But another great division of China after the Spring and Autumn Period, the Warring States Period and the Southern and Northern Dynasties. Since the end of the Tang Dynasty, it has usurped the Tang Dynasty to stand on its own feet, changed its name to Liang, and made Kaifeng its capital. After that, the Tang, Jin, Han and Wu Dynasties appeared one after another, and they were called the Five Dynasties with Liang. In addition to the Five Dynasties, there were many other separatist forces in southern China at that time, namely the Ten Dynasties, including Wu, Chu, Fujian, wuyue, Qian Shu, Houshu, Nanhan, Nantang, Jingnan and Beihan, collectively referred to as the Ten Kingdoms. Historically, it was called the Five Dynasties and Ten Countries, but in fact there were more than ten countries.
The first dynasty of the Five Dynasties was the Liang Zhu Dynasty, which was established by Zhu Quanzhong's usurpation of the Tang Dynasty. It improved some political disadvantages of the Tang Dynasty, and the back beam was destroyed by the later Tang Dynasty, which was a feud with Li.
Tang Mingzong and Li Siyuan, a more enlightened emperor in the later Tang Dynasty, implemented many policies that benefited the country and people and made the society well off. However, his successor Que was killed by his son-in-law Shi Jingtang at the expense of sixteen states.
Shi Jingtang recognized the Khitan Emperor, who was younger than him, as his father, and was conferred the title of Daikin Emperor by the Khitan Emperor, with its capital in Kaifeng. However, a steady stream of wealth flowed into the treasury of the Khitans, and even Shi Jingtang's adopted son Shi Zhonggui was unwilling to do so. At Jing's suggestion, the minister tried to change his attachment to the Khitans, calling them "grandchildren" and refusing to become princes. However, the Khitans responded by sending troops to the south to destroy Houjin and capture Shi Zhonggui alive, and established the Great Liao Dynasty in Kaifeng, with Ye Ludeguang as the emperor.
After the demise of the Jin Dynasty, Liao was unable to establish itself in the Central Plains, retreated to the north and became the Lord of the Central Plains. Liu Zhiyuan killed Li in Taiyuan, seized the Central Plains, became emperor on his own, and established the Han Empire.
His son Liu Chengyou was replaced by Guo Wei because he couldn't kill the general Guo Wei. Guo Wei and his adopted son Guo Rong were wise kings in the Five Dynasties. Under their management, the latter Zhou gradually became strong and unified China, but Guo Rong's successor was a seven-year-old child who could not manage the world. Finally, in Chen Qiao, his people gave him a yellow robe instead of Zhou. Later, under the rule of Zhao Kuangyin, the Song Dynasty finally unified China, ending the great division of the Five Dynasties.
Song and Yuan Dynasties
From the establishment of Hou Liang in 907 to the demise of Yuan Dynasty in 1368, it was a period in which the ethnic integration in China feudal society was further strengthened and the feudal economy continued to develop.
During the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, the south was relatively stable and the economy developed greatly. In the later period of Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms, the later Zhou Dynasty gradually became stronger, which laid the foundation for ending the separatist regime.
After the establishment of the Northern Song Dynasty, a series of measures were taken to strengthen centralization, ending the division of the Five Dynasties and Ten Countries, and the feudal economy continued to develop. In the mid-Northern Song Dynasty, there were financial difficulties and other crises. In order to overcome the ruling crisis, Wang Anshi carried out political reforms. At the end of the Northern Song Dynasty, political corruption, guarding against emptiness, and the Jin soldiers went south, ending the rule of the Northern Song Dynasty. 1 127, the rule of the southern song dynasty began. The confrontation between the Southern Song Dynasty and the Jin Dynasty led to the new economic development of the North and the South.
During the Northern Song Dynasty, the main minority regimes coexisted with it were Liao, which was established by the Qidan nationality, replacing Jin, which was established by the Jurchen nationality, and Xia, which was established by the Tangut. Wars between various ethnic regimes have continued, and at the same time, economic and cultural exchanges have also been strengthened.
Temujin (later called Genghis Khan), the leader of the Mongols, unified the Mongolian ministries and established the Mongolian regime. Genghis Khan and his descendants launched a large-scale war. The Yuan Dynasty established by Kublai Khan unified the whole country. The unification of Yuan promoted the development of multi-ethnic countries. The provincial system implemented in the Yuan Dynasty effectively governed the whole country.
During the Song and Yuan Dynasties, there were frequent economic exchanges among ethnic groups, and handicraft, commerce and urban economy were more prosperous than before. China strengthened its ties with Asian, European and African countries, and its culture, science and technology reached a high level of prosperity.
Liao dynasty
Or Da Liao or Liao State, also known as Qidan or Liao for short, is a minority regime established by Qidan people in China history. The Liao Dynasty, formerly known as the Kingdom of Qidan, was founded in 9 16. The founding monarch was Lu Ye Baoji, the founder of Liao Dynasty. In 947, it was named Liao. In 983, it was renamed as Khitan, and in 2005, it was restored to Liao Guo. After the demise of the Liao Dynasty, Yelv Poetry moved westward to the Chu River Basin in Central Asia, and established the Western Liao Dynasty. 12 1 1 year, Qu Chu usurped the throne. 12 18 was destroyed by Mongolia. In the contacts with the Central Plains and other countries in the Western Regions, Liao accepted everything, which effectively promoted the rapid development of politics, economy and culture in Qidan.
Liao Dynasty changed from a tribal clan society to a slave society in a relatively short period of time, and ruled northern China while leaping into feudal society, which strengthened the ties between people of all ethnic groups and promoted integration. It has played an important role in the development of Mongolia and northeast China. They created a splendid civilization and left a glorious history of Qidan.
Jin Dynasty
Jurchen flourished in Heilongjiang, Songhua River basin and Changbai Mountain area. 1115 65438+1On October 28th, Hong Yan, the leader of Jurchen, announced the founding of the country with the title of Daikin. After the establishment of the Jin Dynasty, with Liao and Wudu as strategic objectives, a war to destroy Liao was launched. After five visits to Beijing, the Liao Dynasty immediately perished. After Jin destroyed Liao, it became an enemy of the Northern Song Dynasty. After Jin Taizong ascended the throne, he wiped out the forces of Liao, and quickly went south. In the fifth year of Tianhui (A.D. 1 127), he wiped out the Northern Song Dynasty. After the demise of Liao Dynasty and Northern Song Dynasty, Jurchen unified the vast northern region including the Yellow River basin and confronted the Southern Song Dynasty for a long time. The Jin dynasty adopted many political systems in the mainland while implementing unique systems such as Meng 'an and Moke. During Wan Yanliang's reign, he launched a large-scale war against the Southern Song Dynasty, but it ended in failure. During the coexistence of Jin and the Southern Song Dynasty and Xixia, he forced Xixia ministers to attach themselves to the Southern Song Dynasty, humiliated them to make peace, and always maintained his hegemonic position. In the late Jin Dynasty, the ruling clique was extremely decadent, and the uprisings of all ethnic groups surged, and at the same time, they were constantly attacked by the Mongolian imperial army and eventually perished.
During the Jin Dynasty, with the deepening of feudalism, the social economy achieved certain development. In addition to the advantages of animal husbandry, its agriculture, handicrafts and commerce have also made progress. The culture of the Jin Dynasty was deeply influenced by the Han nationality and made corresponding achievements, among which drama was more prominent, resulting in famous writers such as Yuan Haowen.
XiXia
Xixia is an empire dominated by Tangut. Since the Northern and Southern Dynasties, the Tangut living in the southeast of Qinghai has become strong. The Sui and Tang Dynasties annexed the Central Plains, and the Tang Dynasty gave it the residence of Li.
After Li Yuanhao succeeded to the throne, he implemented a series of strategies to improve national consciousness. In addition to the Tang and Song Dynasties, he changed his surname to surname and died as the Qing emperor. Subsequently, Li Yuanhao implemented a series of reforms, such as changing hair styles, fixing clothes, creating characters, simplifying etiquette, and establishing an official system. And promote Xingzhou to Xingqing House, expand Miyagi, and prepare to establish the country and proclaim itself emperor. Take off the Song Dynasty and build the Great Summer Empire. In the third year of anniversary (the first year of Song Baoyuan, 1038), Yuan Hao officially proclaimed himself emperor on October 11th, with the title of Daxia and the history of Xixia. Change the yuan and extend the gift. He also sealed a vassal and sent envoys to the Song Dynasty, demanding that the Song Dynasty formally recognize his title of emperor. 104 1 and 1042, Yuan Hao's army defeated Song Jun in Haoshuichuan and Sanchuankou successively, and Song Renzong had to canonize Yuan Hao as Xia Wang. The territory of Xixia is bordered by the Yellow River in the east, Yumenguan (now a small Fangcheng in Dunhuang, Gansu) in the west, Xiaoguan (now Huanxian, Gansu) in the south and the desert in the north. In its heyday, it ruled 22 states, including today's Ningxia and northwestern Shaanxi, northwestern Gansu, northeastern Qinghai and parts of Inner Mongolia. In fact, at that time, China formed a three-legged situation of Song, Liao (Jin) and Xixia.
After Wang De succeeded to the throne, the Mongols took advantage of the weakness of Xixia kingdom to attack on a large scale. In A.D. 1226, after Genghis Khan led his troops to capture Suzhou, Ganzhou and other places, he moved eastward, crossed the desert, crossed the Yellow River and captured Yingli (now the central defender) and xiping county. 1227 65438+ In October, Genghis Khan left his troops to continue besieging Xingqing House. He led his troops south and captured Jishi County. Then he arrived in Lund in April and sent troops to capture Tokugawa Prefecture. In May, Genghis Khan went to Liupanshan for the summer. In June, the late Xixia leader Li Jue led the Xixia civil and military officials to surrender. In July, Genghis Khan, a generation of Tianjiao, died of illness. The Mongols were afraid that Xixia would change, so they killed Li E on the way to the army. Since then, Xixia established by 190 has been destroyed by Mongolia.
Ming and Qing dynasties
From the establishment of the Ming Dynasty in 1368 to the outbreak of the Opium War in 1840, it was a period of consolidation of the multi-ethnic country with unified feudal society in China and the gradual decline of the feudal system.
1368, Zhu Yuanzhang established the Ming Dynasty. In the early Ming Dynasty, the Ming government took a series of measures to strengthen the autocratic centralized rule. Zhu Yuanzhang set up the Royal Guards, Judy set up the East Factory and Ming Xianzong Chenghua set up the West Factory. In order to strengthen the military defense force, Ming Taizu Judy made Beijing its capital. In order to consolidate the border defense in the north, the Ming government built the Great Wall in the north. In order to further strengthen ties with overseas countries, the Ming government sent Zheng He to the Western Ocean seven times. In the middle and late Ming Dynasty, with the development of commodity economy, capitalist relations of production sprouted in some places in the south of the Yangtze River. In the late Ming Dynasty, feudal autocratic rule was very decadent and social contradictions became increasingly acute. Finally, the peasant uprising led by Li Zicheng broke out and overthrew the rule of the Ming Dynasty.
16 16 years, nuerhachi established the regime of nuzhen nationality. 1636, Huang taiji established the title of Qing dynasty. After Shunzhi ascended the throne, he was awarded the Great Qing Dynasty by Shanhaiguan in 1644, defeating Li Zicheng and establishing the Qing Dynasty. In order to further strengthen the centralization of absolutism, the rulers in the early Qing dynasty set up six cabinets, and also added a south study room and a military department. In order to control the people ideologically, the Qing government set off literary inquisitions many times to suppress intellectuals' anti-Qing thoughts.
Modern Times
Late Qing dynasty
In 842, Britain forced the Qing government to sign the Sino-British treaty of nanking, and China's independence and territorial integrity began to be destroyed, from a feudal society to a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society. During the war, some patriotic intellectuals woke up, and a new trend of thought of "learning from the West" sprouted. China was forced to get involved in the capitalist world market system.
1856- 1860 The Second Opium War was a war of aggression against China launched by Britain and France to expand their rights and interests of aggression. The American and Russian fishermen benefit. The four countries forced the Qing government to sign unequal treaties such as Tianjin Treaty and Beijing Treaty, which made China lose more territory and sovereignty, and foreign aggression expanded to coastal provinces and the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River. The degree of semi-colonization of China society has further deepened.
After the Opium War, the class contradictions in the Qing Dynasty intensified unprecedentedly, and peasant uprisings surged. 185 1 year, Hong Xiuquan launched the jintian uprising and established the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom regime. 1853, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom made Tianjing its capital and promulgated the "Tianmu System of China"; From 65438 to 0856, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom reached its military heyday. The Tianjing incident triggered by the intensification of contradictions within the leading group has greatly hurt the vitality of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. 1864, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement failed. The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement led by Hong Xiuquan embodies the characteristics of the peasant war in the new period. Some leaders of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom began to seek truth from the West, explore the road of China's independence and prosperity, and bravely undertook the task of opposing feudalism and aggression. The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement was the peak of the peasant war in China.
In the 65438+60s, the Westernization School appeared in the ruling class of the Qing Dynasty. From the sixties to the nineties. They started a Westernization Movement of "learning from foreigners to control foreigners". The Westernization Movement did not make China prosperous, but objectively stimulated the development of capitalism in China.
During the 65438+ 60s and 70s, the capitalist mode of production appeared in China, and the national bourgeoisie in China came into being. China's national bourgeoisie's aggression against foreign capitalism and its own feudal oppression are both revolutionary and compromised. The proletariat in China was born in the 1940s of 19, earlier than the national bourgeoisie. It is the representative of China's new productive forces and has the most resolute and thorough revolution.
/kloc-In the second half of the 9th century, with the transition from world capitalism to imperialism, imperialism stepped up its aggression against China. 1883 and 1894, the Sino-French War and the Sino-Japanese Sino-Japanese War broke out one after another. The signing of the New Testament between China and France further opened the door of southwest China. The signing of treaty of shimonoseki greatly deepened the semi-colonization of Japanese society.
After the signing of treaty of shimonoseki, the imperialist powers launched fierce competition for capital export in China, seized "leased land" in China, divided "spheres of influence", set off a frenzy to carve up China, and the national crisis in China deepened unprecedentedly.
After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, due to the unprecedented severity of the national crisis and the initial development of Chinese national capitalism, the national bourgeoisie began to enter the historical stage as a new political force. The bourgeois reformists headed by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao set off a reform movement to save the nation from peril and develop capitalism. The feudal stubborn conservative forces, represented by Empress Dowager Cixi, staged a coup and failed in the reform. This reform movement is called the Reform Movement of 1898.
/kloc-At the end of 0/9, the Boxer Rebellion broke out in North China. This movement shattered the arrogant plan of the imperialist powers to carve up China, dealt a heavy blow to the reactionary rule of the Qing government and accelerated its demise. /kloc-in the summer of 0/900, Britain, Russia, Japan, France, Germany, the United States, Italy and Austria invaded China. 190 1 year, the Qing government was forced to sign the "Xin Chou Treaty" with eight countries including Belgium, the Netherlands and Spain and 1 1 country. This marks the formation of a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society in China.