First, indigenous peoples

The history of Canada can be traced back to the end of the ice age 27,000 years ago. The cultural relics unearthed in Yukon show that human beings migrated from Asia through the continental bridge exposed by the retreat of glaciers.

There is not enough evidence to judge whether these people are the ancestors of Inuit or Indians, the aborigines of Canada. However, the study of Inuit language points out that their language is an ancient Asian language, which is called Eskimo-Aleutian language family of ancient Asian language family in academic circles.

There is evidence in Skinner Valley in British Columbia that Indians have lived there continuously for at least 5,000 years.

Before the arrival of Europeans, Indians and Inuit lived on Canadian land for a long time by gathering, farming or fishing and hunting.

Second, the discovery of Canada

Nordic legends written in the13rd century claimed that Eric the Red Man arrived in Greenland around 985 AD, and his son established a temporary settlement at the northern end of Neufen.

Obviously, Vikings have crossed the Atlantic to Canada many times, and then European fishermen occasionally drift here. However, the discovery recorded in official documents did not begin until the end of the fifteenth century.

1497, British explorer john cabot arrived in Newfoundland. He found that in some places here, the density of fish was enough to slow down his boat.

1534, French Jack. Jacques Cartier arrived in Lawrence Bay. He found that this place is rich in precious fur. /kloc-In the first half of the 6th century, French navigators visited the east coast of Canada many times. They call this area? Quot new France ".

It was not until 1776 to 1779 that the Christian world knew that there was still a large area of land west of the Loki Mountains.

From 1792 to 1794, when gorge vancouver surveyed the northwest coastline, the Northwest Fur Company, headquartered in Monterrey, was also surveying the inland of northwest Canada.

1793, alexander mackenzie crossed the whole continent.

1808 Simon. Simon Fletcher also overcame many difficulties, climbed Mount Loki, found the Fraser River, and followed the current to the Pacific coast.

From 1798 to 1802, it took david thomson four years to survey the Columbia River from beginning to end.

The age of conflict

First of all, the temptation of wealth

John Capote, Jack Cartier and Samuel, a French explorer who came to Canada in 1603. Deschampland and his followers went to Canada mainly to find wealth, and it turned out that they were really glad that you came. Europeans finally discovered that this is a rich land.

Port Royal (built in 1605) and Quebec (built in 1608), the earliest European settlements in Canada, were established entirely for fur trade. Quebec, built about 400 years ago, is the only city in North America surrounded by city walls.

At that time, beaver skin was the most popular among Europeans, because it was most suitable for the processing procedures in the seventeenth century. The new French colony established by the French initially relied entirely on fur trading companies.

The fur trade has brought many things to Indian natives that they have never had before. Among them are daily necessities, steel knives, iron axes, muskets and other weapons, as well as rum and brandy, which are more harmful than weapons.

There are often bloody conflicts between aborigines and colonists. The conflict of interest between British and French colonists has also intensified. Both sides allied with Indian tribes, joined hands with allies, attacked each other and competed for territory. In order to facilitate the acquisition of fur, the French set up several strongholds inland. In order to make full use of naval power, the British established colonies in coastal areas.

Second, the conflict between Britain and France.

Since 1689, Britain and France have had a series of armed conflicts for the control of North America.

17 10, Nova Scotia Peninsula fell into British hands. French troops reoccupied Royal Island (now Cape Breton). The French built Fort Louis there to protect the British army from the attack of the Lawrence Channel and used it as a trade hub between New France and West India.

Fort Louis was occupied by the British in 1745, but recaptured by the French in 1748. The British then built Halifax City to compete with it.

1755 In July, the French army defeated several troops of British general braddock in front of Duqueste fortress. The news came that Charles D. Lawrence, the governor of Nova Scotia, England, was afraid that the local French residents of Acadia would take the opportunity to make trouble and forcibly sent these 10 thousand people to Louisiana.

During the Seven Years' War, Britain established its position as the world's largest colonial power. In North America, General Jeffrey Amherst led his troops to recapture Louisburg from the French in 1758.

The following year, another British general, james wolf, won a decisive victory outside Quebec and occupied Quebec City. Montreal also fell to the British in 1760. At this point, Britain has actually completely controlled New France.

1763 The Paris Peace Treaty made New France a British colony. At that time, Britain's dependency in North America reached the Gulf of Mexico in the south and Hudson Bay in the north.

Britain's victory means that about 60,000 French Canadians (including 1500 Acadians returning from Louisiana) have to adapt to a completely different lifestyle.

Fortunately, British rule has proved to be quite moderate on the whole. British rulers adopted English criminal law, but soon realized that they had to keep French civil law. 1774 Quebec Act formally stipulated that two sets of laws would come into effect at the same time.

When the United States became independent in 1776, royalists, regardless of rank, fled the newly established United States of America and settled in Canada. These newcomers are very different from the original residents in religion, law and social system. There is a serious problem between the two, how to adapt to each other and who is the main one.

This problem was partially solved in 179 1 year. The colonial government divided Quebec into upper and lower Canada, namely Ontario and Quebec. Each part has its own parliament.

The original province of Nova Scotia was gradually divided into several parts: Prince Edward Island became a British crown colony in 1769; New brunswick province was founded in 1784; Newfoundland used to be just a fishing base, and it didn't have its own provincial government until 1832.

At that time, western and northern Canada was the concession of Hudson's Bay Company (founded in 1670), and its territory included river basins flowing into Hudson's Bay.

Third, the Anglo-American conflict.

In the three-year Anglo-American War that began in 18 12, the US military once attacked Canada, but failed to win. The navies of the two countries also met several times, but there was no decisive victory or defeat.

Finally, the two sides signed an agreement in 18 141February, agreeing to give up the territory occupied in the war and set up a committee to demarcate the border between Canada and the United States. But it was not until 18 15 1 8 that the British army lost in New Orleans and the war finally really ended.

This war strengthened the national consciousness of Americans and promoted the development of American industry. So Americans think they are winners.

Although the British and Canadian militia and Indian warriors paid a huge price, Canada did not lose an inch of land, and it was not until the rebellion in Canada from 1837 to 1838 that the peace treaty made Canada and the United States basically live in peace, so Canadians have every reason to be glad.

It's just Britain that's unlucky. The British army made great efforts in the war, but in the end, the British were willing to forget the war.

The rise of the Federation

I.1The turmoil in the 1930s

In the 1930s, Canada had many political and economic problems. French parliamentarians are the majority in the lower house of Canada, but the executive committee of the parliament is dominated by British parliamentarians. Louis. The French, led by Pi Nuo, have been trying to seize the power of the executive committee. On the other hand, due to long-term improper farming and poor land, wheat production in Lower Canada has been reduced, resulting in an agricultural crisis.

1837, the people's livelihood in North America suffered a trade crisis, which made the economic situation in Lower Canada worse. In that year 1 1 month, the charming Ba Pi Nuo led a riot, but the military strength of the rebels was far less than that of the British regular army and the rather fierce and rude militia.

In the same year, a smaller rebellion took place in Upper Canada. Journalist and Congressman William Mackenzie promoted American President Andrew. Jackson's democratic ideas opposed British rule and caused riots in Toronto. Both rebellions were quickly suppressed.

Pi Nuo and Mackenzie both fled to the United States after forced repatriation. With the support of the United States, the latter continued to create some border incidents.

1838, Earl Durham became the Governor-General of Canada and was ordered to investigate and study the rebellion in Canada and put forward solutions. This man is open-minded, intelligent and capable, but arbitrary. He was fired after only half a year in office. However, the Durham report he submitted in 1839 changed the way the British government governed the colonies.

He suggested that French Canadians and British Canadians should be assimilated, so that upper and lower Canada should merge. According to this proposal, the original two colonies of Upper and Lower Canada became new Canadian provinces in 1840.

Durham's far-reaching suggestion is that the colonial government should be responsible to the elected parliament, not to the governor appointed by Britain. At that time, the Conservative government in London thought that such a system would not work at all.

Later, the Conservative Party stepped down, and at the instigation of Robert Baldwin and Louis Lafontaine, riots broke out in Nova Scotia and Canada. It was not until 1848 that the British government adopted the system suggested by Durham, Canada.

Later, other British North American colonies-Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island and Nurburgring-also solved the same political problems in their own ways in 1885.

Second, the process of unification.

(A) the pressure to promote reform

In 1950s, a railway was built between Montreal and Toronto. Later, the railway was connected to Portland Port in eastern Maine and Chicago in the south.

Other railways have been opened to traffic in recent years.

Convenient transportation has broken the isolation of various regions, not only changed the countryside, but also provided the possibility for the development of cities. Railways greatly promoted the innovation of British North America, permanently changed Canadian society, and laid the foundation for Canada's joint reunification movement in the 1960s. External factors also promoted the unification of Canada. When the American Civil War broke out, the relationship between the United States and Canada became tense. 186 1 year1kloc-0/month, the American battleship San desino intercepted the British cargo ship Trent and arrested two confederate envoys on board.

Britain was extremely indignant, claiming that its sovereignty had been violated and declared war on the United States. The following year, the American government admitted that it was illegal to intercept British ships and released the envoys of two confederate countries, so the state of war between the two countries ended.

This incident made Canada feel more threatened by the United States. On the other hand, the British Empire itself is in the stage of disillusionment with the colonies.

All this has made many people in British North America deeply aware of the necessity of major political reforms.

Canada's power to promote union mainly comes from western Canada (formerly Upper Canada). People here are increasingly dissatisfied with the conditions set by the merger of upper and lower Canada in 1840.

At this time, the population of western Canada is already the population of eastern Canada (that is, the original lower Canada), and people strongly demand that the number of their members be proportional to the population.

(2) The earliest federation

The Conservative Party tried its best to resist the demand for such changes. But by 1864, the situation was very obvious: unless reforms were carried out, no matter which political party was in power, it could not be maintained. So the Conservative Party and the Reform Party formed an alliance in June of that year and set the goal of forming a British North American Federation.

Several colonies along the Atlantic coast are basically isolated from Canada by vast forests, Appalachian mountains and Maine highlands. These colonies not only have different historical backgrounds, but also different interests.

The idea of Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland is far from the mainland. But Nova Scotia and Nuremberg are interested in forming a federation with Prince Edward Island.

1864 10, the proposal of establishing a British north American Federation put forward by representatives of all parties actually replaced the original topic of the meeting.

The British government enthusiastically supported the idea. The parliaments of the five colonies also voted on this proposal.

Canada adopted this proposal in March 1865. However, new brunswick, Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland all refused to form a Canadian Federation. Nova Scotia decided to join the league only if Newfanglang Svik also joined.

New Brunswick changed his position in 1866. This is not only because of the strong pressure from the British government, but also because of external military threats-in April and June this year, the Irish anti-British secret society, the Feynia Brotherhood, attacked the British colony twice.

Together with New Bogeling Swick, Nova Scotia agreed to join the league. At the beginning of 1869, the British Parliament passed the British North America Act, which allowed Canada, Nurburgring, Vick and Nova Scotia to form a federation called the Dominion of Canada. 1 July 8671day, the law came into effect. From then on, July 1 day became Canada's national day.

The new federation divided the original Canadian province into Ontario and Quebec, plus four provinces: New Bogeling-Svik and Nova Scotia.

The federal government has the right to veto the provincial government's bill. Religious minorities in the provinces can appeal to the federal government on the right to education under special circumstances. The federal and provincial governments adopt the British system, and the government is responsible to the elected parliament.

(c) enlargement of the federation

The first Prime Minister of the New Canadian Federation was john mcdonagh. Except from 1873 to 1878, he worked in a joint post until his death in 189 1 year.

Gospel of John. During MacDonald's tenure, Canada took over the Northwest Territory from the British Hudson Company in 1869, established a new Minneapolis province in 1870, merged with British Columbia in 187 1, and Prince Edward Island became a new member of the Federation in 1873.

The western provinces that have newly joined the Federation are vast in territory and sparsely populated, so it is very difficult to govern. The Canadian government has neither this experience nor the actual situation in the West. For example, after Louis Lear led the Red River Uprising, the Canadian government was forced to establish Minneapolis province.

187 1 year, in order to promote British Columbia's accession to the Canadian Federation, McDonald's government hastily promised to start laying the railway from the east to the Pacific coast within two years, and it is expected that the whole line will be opened to traffic in 188 1 year.

The railway will cross a 4,800-kilometer-wide continent, in which there are not only steep mountains and rivers, boundless forests and swamps, thousands of miles of grasslands, but also extremely sparsely populated. It is impossible to complete the task of surveying the terrain, opening roads and building bridges in such a short time. Therefore, despite a lot of private investment, the whole project, together with McDonald's government, collapsed in the case of 1873 corruption scandal.

Alexander mackenzie, the newly elected Prime Minister of the Liberal Party, tried to use the power of the government to continue the project, but with little success. 1878 The Conservative government that returned to power did nothing.

Until 1880, a private consortium undertook this unprecedented arduous project. The newly established Pacific Railway Company began to operate. This company has abundant financial resources, strong support from the government and an extraordinary president, Han. Thus, in less than five years, the Canadian Pacific Railway from Montreal to Vancouver laid the last spike.

The east and west ends of this railway to Canada are connected into a whole, which greatly promotes the development of the vast inland. Numerous new towns and villages have appeared on the barren wasteland along the railway.

1880, the British government handed over the Arctic Islands to Canada.

Since 1873, the Royal Mounted Police of Northwest Canada has done excellent work for public security in western Canada, but it is impossible for this police force to solve various political problems that led to the rebellion-the most serious of which is the government's lack of foresight in its western policy.

1884, Louis Lear led another rebellion in Saskatchewan Bay. Using the Pacific Railway, the government can send troops quickly, and the next year it defeated the joint armed forces of Meti Stalin (a mixed-race descendant of whites and Indians) led by Lear and Indian aborigines.

The Conservative government distorted Lear in 1885, which caused a series of protests, and the protests in the east were stronger than those in the west. Although the Roman Catholic Church in Canada condemned Lear's apostasy, his fate touched the sympathy of French Canadians. Many people consider him a hero. For this reason, in Quebec, where French is the majority, the power of the Conservative Party has been greatly weakened and cannot be restored for a long time.

MacDonald died as prime minister in 189 1. As a result, the power of the Conservative Party was further weakened. John thomson, the new leader, has the ability and courage to try his best to keep the Conservative Party in power, and has made no small contribution. But every day is a holiday, and he died suddenly in 1894.

The Tories, who were repeatedly hurt, were finally ousted by voters in 1896 because of the complicated Minneapolis school. 1890, Minneapolis abolished the system of dividing schools according to religion and stopped using French as the official language. This decision caused a strong controversy.

The Federal Conservative Party, for fear of fire, delayed its intervention until 1895, when the court ordered a bill to restore Catholic schools in the province. The opposition Liberal Party in Congress successfully blocked the passage of the bill. And won the subsequent national election.

The era of complete modernization

First, the sustainable development of the Federation.

In the next 15 years, the Canadian Prime Minister was Wilfred laurier, leader of the Liberal Party. He is the first French Prime Minister in Canada. This man is slim, elegant, politically attractive and truly free-thinking.

Laurier's rule was also a period of rapid Canadian development. 19 14 years ago, Canada increased by another 30%. 1905, Alberta and Saskatchewan were added to the west.

In the federal election of 19 1 1, the Liberal Party led by laurier was defeated by the Conservative Party led by Robert Boden. The main reason is that people are dissatisfied with the trade reciprocal treaty signed by the Liberal Party and first proposed by the United States, and Boden fully reflects the national sentiment of voters.

Boden government has a strong foundation among the people, because it advocates Canadian economic nationalism and emphasizes maintaining close relations with Britain.

Second, the first world war

After the outbreak of World War I in Europe, Boden's pro-British policy was severely tested. 19 14 10 In October, Canada sent 33,000 soldiers to Europe to participate in the war. Many of them will die on the battlefield.

Then more Canadian divisions went to Europe. Soon, the Canadian army became an assault force on the western front.

19 17 In April, a Canadian army, under the command of the famous British soldier Juriens Bing, conquered the Victoria Heights, which was heavily guarded by the German army. The allied forces attacked this important military place many times, but there was no progress, but an army from the colony created a miracle. Therefore, Canada's international influence and reputation have been greatly improved.

In World War I, the casualties of both armies were unprecedented. In the Battle of the Somme in 19 16, the Allies lost 623,907 men. Among them, 24029 people are Canadians. In the Battle of Vimy, 3,598 Canadians were killed.

The heavy casualties made Premier Boden, who was visiting Europe, realize that the only way to keep Canadian troops fighting was to implement compulsory conscription. However, when he returned to Canada in May 19 17, he found that many people in China could not accept his views, especially French descendants who opposed conscription.

In order to avoid people's division, Boden invited laurier, leader of the Liberal Party, to join his coalition government, but the latter refused. Although Boden finally formed a coalition government with liberals who were in favor of conscription, on the whole, this policy alienated the French people.

Borden insisted diplomatically that Canada must have a say in the war policy of the British Empire. Thanks to his efforts, Canada was able to sign the Treaty of Versailles as an independent member in 19 19. This has made Canada take a big step towards full autonomy.

Third, the period of economic turmoil.

Great changes have taken place in Canada in the first two decades of this century. Cars have become commonplace; 19 18 women won the right to vote; The prohibition movement is gaining momentum; The old cowboy bar, together with the sawdust and spittoon on the ground, has become a permanent sacrifice of the world war and the women's movement. By the end of the war, all provinces in the country banned the sale of alcoholic beverages. But Canada doesn't ban alcohol in peacetime like the United States. After 1920, under the control of the provincial government, all localities gradually resumed the legal sales of all kinds of alcohol.

The first world war led to inflation in Canada, which also made the internal economic and political relations in Canada unbalanced. 19 19 in may, a general strike broke out in winnipeg. The results of the national election in 192 1 also show that there are serious differences between regions and parties.

It was Mackenzie King who took the stage at this time. 19 19 After laurier died, he became the leader of the Liberal Party.

In the late 1920s, Canada was deeply influenced by the ups and downs of the stock market. Canadians, like Americans, caught the stock fever when the stock value soared, and as a result, they suffered a disastrous blow when the stock market plummeted in 1929. Many people's savings for many years have vanished in an instant.

The government of Mackenzie King also stepped down in 1930. The new Prime Minister Richard Bennett and his Conservative government called on Canadians to tighten their belts. At the same time, the federal government cut the budget vigorously, and ordinary Canadians had to tighten their belts. At the same time, the federal government has cut its budget vigorously, and ordinary Canadians have to tighten their spending.

Canada's full autonomy was officially confirmed in 193 1 year. At that time, the Westminster Act promulgated by Britain stipulated that the dominions of Britain and Canada were equal. Canada officially became an independent sovereign country.

At that time, there were few buyers of wheat and other major export commodities in Canada. The price of wheat dropped from zero to 60 cents a bushel. But more unfortunately, since the summer of March 3 1, the drought has continued, and the endless Maihai has turned into a dusty desert, and tens of thousands of farmers have gone bankrupt.

The Great Depression, which began with the stock market crash, was desperate. Canadians can't help but be disappointed with the free enterprise system. They seek a way out from other economic philosophies and political parties.

Some new political parties emerged, advocating socialist cooperation, and 1933 established the same party alliance; 1935, the Social Credit Party gained political power in the election in Alberta. The National Alliance headed by Maurice du Blesi also came to power in Quebec in 1936.

Even Bennett of the Conservative Party, having no choice, followed the example of President Roosevelt of the Associated Press and put forward the Canadian version of the new economic policy at the beginning of 1935. But this did not save Bennett and his party. In the general election held in the same year, the Conservative Party was defeated by Mackenzie King's Liberal Party.

Fourth, World War II.

(1) wartime prime minister

Mackenzie King regained power in 1935 and remained in power until he retired in 1948. Under his leadership, Canada experienced World War II.

On the surface, this old bachelor is chubby, boring and ambiguous. It is said that he often asks his mother's ghost about important political affairs. But in fact, he is very smart, a opinionated and wily politician, and his way of employing people is also outstanding.

He is far from being a natural wartime leader, but he has self-knowledge and can choose the most capable person to undertake various important positions. His cabinet is full of talents and eclectic.

Mackenzie King has always had a grudge against Europe and is not keen on playing for England. 1939 10/0, 7 days after Britain declared war on Germany, Canada also declared war. But at that time, King only wanted Canada to play a limited role.

1in June, 940, the situation deteriorated to the extreme, when France had surrendered and the United States had not yet entered the war. Only Britain continued to resist Nazi Germany's occupation of Europe. Canada is cooperating with other Commonwealth countries. So Canada, under the leadership of Mackenzie King, mobilized the whole people and made great contributions and sacrifices to defeating fascism in all aspects.

(2) bloody army

When the war broke out, the population of Canada was about11267,000. By the end of the war in 1945, it was only12072,000. However, during this period, there were1100000 people serving in the army. At its peak, the Canadian army numbered 495,804. Including 15845 women. The Royal Canadian Navy has about 92,000 people; 1943, the number of air force reached 206,350, and by 1945, the size of Canadian air force ranked fourth in the world.

Canada has invested a large number of troops, but with the acquiescence of the Canadian government, major military strategies are decided by more important allies. Therefore, in some cases, Canadian soldiers paid a heavy price.

1August 942 19, the British authorities ordered a Canadian division to cross the English Channel and attack the German port of Dieppe (located in the north of Normandy, France). The rocks along the coast of Dieppe are high and steep, which is also a key defensive place for the Germans. The Canadian army fought bravely, but it was badly defeated when it was outnumbered and lacked the air and naval fire cover promised by the British army and no reinforcements. Of the 5,000 people who landed, 3,367 were killed or captured. At that time, both the Soviet Union and the United States criticized Britain for its delay in opening up a second front on the European continent. The British high command ordered the Canadian army to launch this? Quot Obviously, the reconnaissance attack is mainly to silence the Soviet Union and the United States. Military historians generally believe that it is an obvious mistake to choose such a place as the landing point. However, the allies learned from this order and realized that the forced landing must be supported by the air force and navy. 1on June 6, 944, when the allied forces launched the unprecedented Normandy landing campaign in the world military history, they did not make the same fatal mistake again. From this point of view, Canadian blood was not spilled on the beaches of Dieppe in vain.

In the Normandy landing campaign on June 6, 1944, five divisions of the Union and the Army (1 Canadian division and two British and American divisions) captured five beaches respectively. The Canadian division not only broke through the German coastal defense front, but also pushed inland for ten miles to reach Caen.

Then the Canadian First Army attacked Antwerp, the Belgian port of Certeau River, at the end of September after several months of continuous hard fighting. The Allies urgently needed to use this port to replenish their military supplies, while the Germans used the marshes along the river to persevere. The Canadian army had great difficulty in advancing from the army and could not attack by water with landing craft, so it suffered heavy casualties. But after two months of bloody fighting, the Canadian army finally conquered Antwerp.

This victory enabled the allied ships to arrive in Certeau Port in time, provided enough arms and other materials for the army, and laid the foundation for repelling Hitler's desperate counterattack in eastern Belgium that winter.

After that, the Canadian army pushed all the way to the Rhine River on the German-Dutch border and achieved success. Then it swept across north german plain and reached the North Sea coast on April 1945 15, cutting off the retreat of the Dutch occupation army and forcing the Germans in this area to surrender to Marshal Montgomery of Britain. Then the Canadian army was ordered to return to the division to liberate the Netherlands. At that time, the Dutch people were suffering from famine, and many people used turmeric bulbs to satisfy their hunger. The timely arrival of Canadian troops saved many people from hunger.

In order to thank Canada for its help in the Second World War, many Dutch towns still hold liberation day commemorative ceremonies every year to express their gratitude to Canadian liberators. The Dutch royal family presents100000 tulip bulbs to Ottawa, the capital of Canada, every year, adding icing on the cake to the beautiful spring in this city.

In addition, another Canadian army participated in the Italian campaign of 1943, where it fought side by side with the British until 1945 1 month.

(3) The air force and navy who died heroically.

Canada's air force and navy also made indelible contributions and great sacrifices to the victory over fascism. Canadian flight schools have trained a large number of pilots for the air forces of Commonwealth countries. At the beginning of the war, more than 8,000 Canadian pilots were directly incorporated into the Royal Air Force after graduation.

(4) Domestic policy in wartime

During the Canadian War, the government mobilized, organized and planned the national economy and produced a large number of weapons and ammunition. Britain's war effort largely depends on Canada's economy; Even the United States thinks that Canada is very helpful and even indispensable in some ways.