Christianity has the largest number of believers in the world. Christianity is divided into three main factions: Catholicism (or Roman Catholicism), Protestantism (or Protestantism, Jesuits) and Orthodox Church.
(1) The Formation and Development of Christianity
Christianity originated from Judaism in Palestine. In AD 3, the Romans conquered Palestine and brutally suppressed the Jews. For this reason, the Jews revolted many times, and the failure of the uprising made some people hope for religion and expect a "savior" to save the suffering parishioners. There is a secret Sect among the lower Jewish people that the "savior" is coming, and Christianity actually evolved from this Sect. The earliest followers of this Sect were mostly slaves, liberated slaves and the poor. They set up a group in the city to carry out activities, marked by a cross, and implemented common property. However, because its religion is open to all ethnic groups, including the Romans, the original spirit of hostility to Roman rule has gradually changed to tolerance of real Roman rule, propaganda of love and hate as one's own, hope for the afterlife, and encourage loyalty to the country and obedience to the master. Therefore, in 3 13 AD, Constantine promulgated the Milan Amnesty Order, announcing the legitimacy of Christianity.
(2) The development and division of Christianity after the Roman Empire.
Christianity split into two empires, the East and the West, and two centers, Rome and Constantine, appeared. The division between the eastern and western Christian churches, coupled with the later differences in the interpretation of doctrines and rituals, accused each other of being heretics. At 1054, he was expelled from the other side, cut off all contact, and officially split into two sects. East Constantinople as the center, known as the Orthodox Church, also known as the "Orthodox Church". The west calls itself the Roman Catholic Church (that is, Catholicism). In the west, the political power of the church has expanded, and it has used its privileges to occupy many territories and exploit farmers. The church also sells all kinds of clergy, "sacred objects", "sacred bones" and "atonement books" to extract people's blood and sweat. The corruption of the church, using the so-called "heresy" to suppress the resistance of believers and people, has completely turned the church into a ruling group opposed to the people. The church became the focus of people's opposition to feudalism. German priest Martin Luther put forward the religious reform, and menzel led the peasant uprising, which made the unified church in the west no longer exist, and the religious reform was widely carried out in the vast areas of the north. Therefore, Protestantism not only appeared after the reform, but also dominated in these countries. Christianity has since been divided into three sects.
(3) the spread and distribution of Christianity
Catholicism in Europe is mainly in central and southern Europe such as Italy, France, Spain, Portugal and America. Protestant countries are mainly Nordic countries, such as Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Iceland, Finland, Britain and parts of Germany and the Netherlands. There are 420 million Protestants in the world, mainly in Europe and North America. The Orthodox Church was originally distributed in the Balkans and the Middle East. In Europe, the countries that mainly believe in the Orthodox Church are Russia, Romania, Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia and Macedonia. In Asia, mainly Russians live. There are more than 65.438+0.6 billion people who believe in the Orthodox Church all over the world, mainly in the former Soviet Union, accounting for 60%.
(4) Christian doctrine and system
Christianity takes the Old Testament as its basic classic and is called the Bible. Its teachings are:
Creationism: Everything in the universe is created by God, and it is "omnipresent, omnipotent, all-good, all-intelligent and all-loving". Original sin: Adam and Eve, the ancestors of mankind created by God, violated God's command and ate the forbidden fruit in the Garden of Eden, thus committing crimes. Therefore, their descendants were born guilty. Only by believing in the savior Jesus to atone for sin can people get eternal life after death. Heaven and hell say: when people come into the world, they can only let their souls ascend to heaven after death, otherwise they will be thrown into hell. Entering the church requires a sacrificial ceremony, and the Christian wedding will be held in the church and presided over by the priest. Festivals mainly include Christmas, Easter and Pentecost.
2. Islam
In terms of the number of followers, Islam ranks second among the three major religions in the world. "Islam" means obedience, and its followers are called "Muslims", mainly distributed in the Middle East, North Africa, South Asia and Southeast Asia.
(1) The formation and development of Islam;
In the 7th century BC, Byzantium and Persia fought a long-term war for the eastern and western trade routes in the Middle East, which severely hit the Arabian Peninsula economy, depressed cities, made people's lives difficult, and the society needed a new way out.
Muhammad, the founder of Islam, lost his parents when he was a child, followed his uncle to do business everywhere, and later married a rich widow to improve his social status. Later, he became interested in religion and claimed that he was inspired by "Allah" and was "consecrated". After that, he began missionary activities. Because he believed that Allah was the only God in the universe, he was opposed by local polytheism, so he had to turn from Mecca to Medina. He successfully preached in Medina, won the support of the masses, and established a political power of combining politics with religion. Then he returned to Mecca and unified the whole Arabian Peninsula. After Muhammad's death, the church established an heir through election. By imposing heavy taxes on pagans, they believe in Islam and spread it quickly.
(2) the spread of Islam:
Outside the Arab Empire, Islam spread mainly in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. In West Africa, Islam was widely influenced by the armed invasion from Senegal to Nigeria. In East Africa, there are two routes for the spread of Islam, one is to enter Sudan along the Nile, and the other is to leave a deep impression on the coastal areas from Somalia to Mozambique. In Asia, Islam spread eastward through Iran, all the way into Central Asia through Afghanistan, and was introduced into northwest China in the Tang Dynasty. Another route into India, Pakistan and Bangladesh is the Islamic countries today. In addition to the above land transmission, there is another way to spread Islam through maritime trade. Today, it is spread in Malaysian, Indonesian, southern Philippines and Islamic areas along the southeast coast of China.
(3) the sect of Islam:
After Muhammad's death, a fierce struggle was launched around the issue of heirs. As a result, due to the opposition of political factions, they split into two opposing factions-Sunnis and Shiites, and the struggle between these factions continues to this day.
(4) the teachings of Islam and religious system:
The teachings of Islam mainly have the following four aspects:
Destiny view: that Allah is unique, can create all things and dominate all things. Muhammad is deified: Muhammad is the messenger sent by Allah to convey the will of Allah, and obeying the messenger means obeying Allah.
Believe in the afterlife: the souls of the dead will be judged and punished according to the performance of good and evil in this world.
The concepts of "heaven" and "hell": if you do good in this life, you can go to heaven after death, and vice versa. In religious ceremonies, we emphasize chanting, worship, fasting, zakat and pilgrimage to the five pillars of Islam. The main festivals are Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha.
3.buddhism:
Buddhism originated in ancient India (now Nepal) and distributed in East Asia, Southeast Asia and South Asia. In terms of believers, the number of people who once flourished and now declined is relatively small.
(1) the rise and fall of Buddhism;
Buddhism originated in the 6th-5th century BC and was founded by Siddhartha Gautama. Sakyamuni is regarded as a respectful name by believers. According to legend, he is now Prince Kapilao of Nepal. At the age of 29, he deeply felt that the caste system of Brahmanism in India was unreasonable, and the lower classes suffered from illness and death. So he ran away from home, gained enlightenment at the age of 35, founded Buddhism and won the support of the poor. In the Indian society at that time, the upper caste brutally oppressed and exploited the lower caste society, and the social contradictions were very complicated and sharp, which provided conditions for the emergence and development of Buddhism. Sakyamuni founded caste deism to oppose Brahmanism and put forward "the equality of all beings".
(2) Sect:
Buddhism is divided into three major sects: Mahayana Buddhism, Hinayana Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism.
"Riding" means showing the way. The difference between Mahayana and Hinayana lies not only in theory, but also in religious practice. For example, in the Buddha's view, Hinayana regards Sakyamuni as the leader, and Mahayana regards him as a god, and his power is boundless. In terms of practice methods and results, Hinayana advocates that practitioners should be liberated, while Mahayana advocates that practicing Buddhism should "help the world". From the perspective of philosophical universe, Hinayana holds that "I have nothing but law" and Mahayana holds that "I have nothing but law".
Mahayana Buddhism spread to Central Asia in 1 century BC, then to China, and then to Korea and Japan, so Mahayana Buddhism is also called northern Buddhism. Hinayana Buddhism spread southward by sea, popular in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and other countries, also known as Southern Buddhism.
In Tibet, Inner Mongolia and the People's Republic of Mongolia, there is another kind of Buddhism called Lamaism, which is a combination of tantric Buddhism, Mahayana Buddhism introduced from India and primitive religion in Tibet.
(3) The basic teachings and festivals of Buddhism:
The basic teachings of Buddhism are:
Four truths: bitterness, determination, extinction and Tao. Suffering: birth and death; Set: the reason lies in desire and ignorance; Extinction: practice; Tao: means and methods of liberation.
Twelve causes: human suffering is caused by twelve causal links, which become conditions.
"karma" and "reincarnation of life and death": if you do good deeds that conform to Buddhist norms, you will get good reincarnation and retribution in the afterlife, otherwise you will become livestock and fall into hell.
Three dharma seals: the line is impermanent, the law has no self, and nirvana is silent.
Buddhist festivals include: Buddha's Birthday Festival, Nirvana Festival and Buddha's Light Festival.
4. The origin and development of Taoism
Taoism originated in Zhang Ling in the Eastern Han Dynasty, and is the masterpiece of his son Zhang Heng and his grandson Zhang Lu. Taoism is based on Taoism's reactionary thought to Confucianism, that is, the "nothing" world view. In addition, because of dissatisfaction with the politics of the Eastern Han Dynasty, he turned to religion to express his wishes. Taoism has a strong folk color. In addition to various actions, voluntary homes have been established in various places to facilitate believers, so it has gradually become a huge religion against Confucianism and Buddhism. But it is undeniable that they are more absorbed from Confucianism and Buddhism. By the end of the Northern Wei Dynasty, Kou had completed a rich and organized Taoist teaching system, and his followers had also expanded to the upper class. After the Sui and Tang Dynasties and Song San, there was a separation between Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism. At the same time, Taoism has developed in a balanced way in theory and practice. In the Song Dynasty, Taoism and Buddhism had a great influence on Confucian philosophy.
As for the development of Taoism, it originated from ancient witchcraft and fairy magic in Qin and Han dynasties, and then it was combined with yin and yang, five elements, divination and incantation. Establish a Taoist ideological system and introduce Buddhist thought to develop it. During the period of Shun Di in the Eastern Han Dynasty (125- 144), Zhang Ling advocated the Five-Way Rice Road, respecting Lao Zi as the leader and taking Lao Zi's 5,000 books as the main classics. At this point, Taoism gradually took shape.
During the reign of Emperor Ling of the Han Dynasty (167- 189), Taiping Daoism was another important school of Taoism in the early period, with Taiping Ching Ling as the main sutra, "Good Daoism" as the way to educate disciples and water as the way to treat others. Hundreds of thousands of disciples spread all over eight states, such as Qing and Xu, and the Five Dou Mi Daoism with Zhang Heng and Zhang Lu became the foundation of the peasant uprising at that time.
Later, Laozi's disciples appeared, advocating Laozi's westward journey to turn Hu into Buddha and turn Buddha into Tao. In the first year of Jianwu in the Eastern Jin Dynasty (AD 3 17), Ge Hong wrote the Inner Chapter of Bao Puzi, which sorted out and expounded the theory of immortal magic since the Warring States Period, systematized the ideological content of Taoism and became the basic classic of Taoism. At the end of the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Sun En, Lu Xun and others also used Mi Dou's Five Knives to organize peasant uprisings. During the Northern and Southern Dynasties, during the reign of Taiping Zhenjun in the Northern Wei Dynasty (440-450 BC), with the support of the Wei Emperor (reigned in 424-45 BC1year), the Taoist priest Kou in Songshan called himself "the old gentleman on the throne", cleaned up Taoism, removed the "three pseudo-laws", made exercises and recited new laws with reference to Buddhist rituals. Soon after, Lu Heliang, a Taoist priest in Lushan Mountain in the Southern Dynasties and the Song Dynasty, and Tao Hongjing compiled scriptures and made a fast model. The theory and organizational form of Taoism became more and more complete, and it was called "Southern Daoism".
In the Tang Dynasty, Taoism developed more prosperously. Wang Yuan, the grandson of Tao Hongjing, knew that the harmony of Taoism between the north and the south in Shi Tian became an important foundation for the prosperity of Taoism in the Tang Dynasty. In the Tang Dynasty, the monarchs extensively built Laozi temples and Taoist temples, and added the subject of Tao Te Ching to the imperial examination. In the 11th year of Zhenguan (AD 637), Emperor Taizong put Taoism above Buddhism by imperial edict, and this policy of "Taoism before Buddhism" became the consistent policy of the Tang Dynasty. Tang Gaozong (reigned from 649 to 683) took Laozi as the ancestor of the royal family in the Tang Dynasty, and gave him the title of "Emperor Tai's Xuanyuan", which made every state have Taoist temples. During the reign of Xuanzong (7 12-756), he further made every scholar keep a copy of Laozi, praised metaphysics, and regarded Laozi, Zhuangzi, Liezi and other classics as "true classics". During the late Tang Dynasty and the Five Dynasties, Du Guangting devoted himself to the collation of Taoist classics and the collection of Taoist rites. Lv Dongbin took "compassion for heaven and compassion for others" as the way to become a monk, and replaced fencing with greed, hatred and delusion, which had a great influence on the development of Taoism in the Northern Song Dynasty. Song Zhenzong (997- 1022), Wang Qinruo, Zhang Junfang and others were ordered to edit Taoist scriptures, of which the Seven Signs of Yun Qi 122 was the representative work, and a Taoist temple was also built. Song Huizong (1100-1/25 years in office) once claimed to be "Emperor Daojun, the founder of Taoism", ordered the world to visit Taoist immortal scriptures, set up a rigid version, publish all books, and set up Tao Te Ching, Zhuangzi and Liege in imperial academy. Taoism prevailed at that time.
After the Tang and Song Dynasties, Taoism in northern and southern Shi Tian gradually merged with the schools of Shangqing, Lingbao and Jingming, and merged into a "orthodox school" dominated by Fu Yong in the Yuan Dynasty. In the seventh year of Dading in the Jin Dynasty (A.D. 1 167), Wang Zhongyang founded Quanzhen Religion in Ninghai, Shandong Province. During the Jin and Yuan Dynasties, Liu Deren founded "Great Taoism" (later called "True Taoism") and Xiao Baozhen founded "Taiyi Taoism". Both of them traveled in Jiangbei, but the good times did not last long. Only Quanzhen religion still thrives. At that time, Quanzhen religion and Shi Tian Taoism were the two main streams of Taoism. Wang Zhongyang tried his best to reconcile the views of Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism, removed the elements of incantations and superstitions, and emphasized the teachings of Buddhism (especially Zen) and the truth of becoming a monk. His seven disciples were called "seven real people", among which Qiu Chuji was more important than Yuan Taizu (reigned in 1206- 1228). During the reign of Yuan Shizu (1260- 1294), Taoism failed because of the fierce debate between Buddhism and Taoism caused by Laozi's Hu Jing, so Taoism was banned by imperial edicts in the eighteenth year of Yuan Dynasty (128 1 year). As a result, the development of Taoism suffered a great blow, and the power of cults gradually declined. Since then, Taoism has been formally divided into orthodox school and quanzhen school, which continued to spread in the Ming Dynasty and gradually declined in the Qing Dynasty. In the early days of Taoism's prosperity, religious organizations combined with state power, thus forming a special class and a religion specializing in monks; After the gradual decline of Taoism, it turned to pay attention to people's religious desires, based on people's life and daily ethics everywhere, so it was called "Humanism", and at the same time, a large number of good books and precious classics appeared, which is the so-called humanitarianism classics.
Taoism holds that the fundamental hope of human beings lies in getting lucky, happy, longevity and prosperity in this world. In order to realize this ideal, people are actively advised to do good deeds, and prayers are held, so Taoist beliefs are particularly popular. Therefore, not only its adaptability and adaptability have expanded, but also the believer class has broadened. Although there are many schools of Taoism, in general, its basic beliefs and teachings are still "Tao", which is regarded as "the system of nothingness, the root of nature, the foundation of gods, and the yuan of heaven and earth". It is also said that the universe, yin and yang, and everything are transformed from "Tao". The highest god worshipped is Sanqing God personified by Tao, among which Laozi is the "moral god". However, after the Song Dynasty, people's Taoism was deified by natural stars or historical figures, such as Wenchang Emperor (learning gods), Lv Zu Emperor, Guan Sheng Emperor, Beidou God (deifying Beidou) and Xuantian God (deifying North Star). The specific methods of Taoist cultivation are: taking the bait (taking the fairy medicine), guiding (a kind of soft gymnastics), fetal breathing (also known as breathing qi and promoting qi, which is a breathing method to inhale the vitality of the universe into the body in order to live forever), charm (the secret of magic), sexual intercourse (the method of taking yin to replenish yang) and avoiding eating. Religious ceremonies include fasting, prayer, chanting and ceremonies.