(ancient national defense)
China's ancient national defense refers to the long history of nearly 4,000 years from the establishment of the Xia Dynasty in the 2nd1century BC to the Opium War in 1.840. In the meantime, the Chinese nation has experienced the tempering of countless wars, formed a strong national cohesion, and cultivated the martial spirit of self-improvement, courage, fear of violence and defending the country, and finally became a multi-ethnic country with a vast territory.
1, ancient national defense policy and national defense theory
About 2 1 century BC, the ancient society of China began to enter the slavery society from the primitive clan commune society, and the state appeared. Since then, as a weapon to resist foreign aggression and conquer other countries, the embryonic form of national defense memorandum has appeared. In the subsequent battles of thousands of years, in order to defend the country, China's ancient national defense policies and theories were gradually formed.
During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the concept of national defense was rapidly strengthened due to successive wars among vassal States. At that time, although a hundred schools of thought contended brilliantly in political and philosophical views, they were even consistent in national defense. Formed the ideas of "righteous war instead of war", "love without punishment without attacking", "ruling the country with righteousness but using strange weapons", "enriching Qiang Bing", "combining civil and military", "advocating war, being good at war" and "defeating the enemy without fighting", which showed the importance attached to armament and national defense in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. Mainly manifested in: military art is extremely active. Sun Tzu's Art of War, the earliest and most influential book in existence, is an outstanding masterpiece of this period. Other influential works include Woods, Sun Bin's Art of War, Sima Fa, Wei Liaozi and Tamia Liu. Of the seven works that have been regarded as military classics for thousands of years, five were produced during this period. The extensive military expositions of a hundred schools of thought contend together formed the first peak in the history of China's military art and laid a solid foundation for China's national defense theory. On this basis, a relatively complete concept of war is formed and the general guiding principles of war are put forward. For example, Sun Tzu's guiding principles, such as "Know yourself and know yourself, and fight every battle", "Show the battle first", "Cut the enemy's hand and win without fighting" and "use your wisdom to make strength". These guiding principles are incisive in summary and still have extremely important guiding significance. Summarized a whole set of methods to manage the army, and formed a more reasonable military establishment structure; Attach importance to improving weapons and equipment, develop a variety of weapons and equipment, and clearly put forward that the education and training of the army should be the primary task of running the army to improve the quality of the army.
History entered the Qin, Han, Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties, and China's national defense construction further developed.
From 230 BC to 22 BC1year, after the unification war of1year, Qin annexed six countries successively, ending the long-term division in history and establishing a centralized feudal country for the first time, which marked that China's feudal society entered a new historical stage. The following Tang and Han dynasties were the heyday of feudal society in China, and the military was in the heyday of expanding territory. From 1300 to1in the middle of the 20th century, China's ancient national defense policies and theories were further developed. Mainly manifested in: began to comprehensively sort out the art of war, and initially formed the ancient military art system. After three large-scale reorganization, it has formed four categories: military strategy and tactics, military campaign and tactics, yin and yang of military astronomy and meteorology, and manufacturing and using skills of weapons and equipment, forming a relatively complete military art system. In addition, strategic thinking tends to be mature, and strategic defense thinking has been further improved.
From the Song Dynasty to the early Qing Dynasty, the feudal landlord class in China declined, but militarily, it entered the era of using cold and hot weapons. Therefore, national defense policy and national defense theory have also developed considerably. Wushu began to be incorporated into the national education system. At the beginning of the Northern Song Dynasty, martial arts was controlled by Wen Zhi, and Chinese people were subordinate to the imperial army, which led to the decline of national defense. Song Renzong set up "martial arts", and then set up martial arts, which trained and selected a large number of military talents for the army, and also prospered military art. In the Ming and Qing Dynasties, martial arts was pushed to a deeper level, and even there was a situation in which scholars talked about soldiers and military men used words. A large number of military works have been published, and the study of military thought has developed systematically.
Generally speaking, China's ancient national defense theory mainly includes: the guiding ideology of "people-oriented" and "preparing for danger in times of peace"; The national defense construction thought of "enriching Qiang Bing" and "combining soldiers with farmers"; The national defense education thought of "patriotism teaching war" and "advocating martial arts"; The national defense struggle strategy of "defeating the enemy without fighting" and "protecting the country and defending the country and the whole army". Under the guidance of these thoughts and strategies, China eliminated the war disasters caused by numerous foreign invasions, provided the basic living conditions for the prosperity of the Chinese nation and the development of the country, and even made the national defense once have the honor of "China is safe, and the four foreigners are self-contained".
2. Ancient military architecture.
The military system is what we often say, also called the military system. It is a system in which a country or political group organizes, manages, maintains, reserves and develops military forces. The construction of ancient military system in China mainly includes military leadership system, armed forces system and military service system.
In terms of military leadership system, in Xia, Shang and Zhou dynasties, the king was generally in charge of the command, and no special military leadership organization was formed. At the end of the Spring and Autumn Period, the state implemented the separation of powers, and the military command organization was mainly composed of (generals). During the Warring States period, the generals began to fight independently. After Qin unified the whole country, a special military management organization was set up, with Qiu as the highest military chief. The Sui Dynasty established a system of three provinces and six departments, with the Ministry of Military Affairs in charge of the military. In Song Dynasty, the Privy Council was established as the highest institution of military leadership, and its chief officer was a civilian. The main purpose is to prevent "powerful generals" from supporting themselves. The Privy Council has the right to transfer troops but has no right to command, and the general has the right to command but has no right to transfer troops, thus forming a situation in which the Privy Council and the general contain each other. Although the practice of military leadership system in different dynasties is different, imperial power is supreme, and the final distribution and use of the army is always in the hands of the emperor.
In terms of the armed forces system, before the Qin Dynasty, the structure of the armed forces was single, and a country usually had only one national army. Since the Qin Dynasty, the country's political system has been gradually improved and the productive forces have been constantly developing. Therefore, according to the situation of the country and the needs of national defense, as well as the specific conditions of the garrison areas and tasks, various dynasties divided the army into three types: the central army, the local army and the border guards, and made specific provisions on the establishment system of the army, garrison border defense, military service, military mobilization, quartermaster, post channel, ordnance manufacturing, transportation and marketing, and so on, and stipulated them in the form of law.
The military service system has developed and changed with the political, economic, demographic and military needs in various historical periods. During the slave society, the productivity was low, the population was sparse and the scale of the war was small. Mainly implement the civil service system. During the feudal society, the civilian army system gradually evolved into a military service system adapted to the historical conditions at that time, such as the conscription system in the Qin and Han Dynasties, the world conscription system in the Three Kingdoms, the Jin and the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the officers and men system in the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the conscription system in the Song Dynasty, and the garrison system in the Ming Dynasty.
3, the ancient national defense engineering construction
In ancient China, a large number of large-scale national defense projects were built to resist foreign invasion and consolidate border and coastal defense. For example, cities, the Great Wall, the Beijing-Hangzhou Canal and coastal defense fortresses.
In China's ancient national defense construction, the city was built at the earliest time and in the largest number. The tower first began in Shang Dynasty, and then, the scale of the tower continued to expand and the structure became more and more perfect, which continued until modern times. Therefore, in the ancient wars in China, the city's offensive and defensive operations became one of the main styles.
The Great Wall is the extension and development of urban construction. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the Great Wall was built. After Qin Shihuang unified the six countries, in order to consolidate national defense and resist the invasion of Xiongnu in the north, in 2 14 BC, the Great Wall in the north of Qin, Zhao and Yan countries was connected into a whole, forming a grand project from Lintao in the west (now Minxian County, Gansu Province), Yinshan in the north and Liaodong in the east. After many times of construction and connection in past dynasties, the Great Wall of Wan Li with a total length of 12700 was formed in the Ming Dynasty, starting from Jiayuguan in the west and reaching Shanhaiguan in the east.
The Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal is a great water conservancy project built in ancient China. During the period of Yang Di, a great deal of manpower and material resources were recruited to widen and connect the original old rivers, and the Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal with a total length of 1.794 km was formed from Tongzhou (now Tongzhou District of Beijing) in the north to Hangzhou in the south, which connected many counties in the north and south into a line and became the artery of military traffic and "transporting grain from the south to the north", which had great military and economic functions.
Ancient coastal defense construction began in the Ming Dynasty. In the14th century, Japanese pirates frequently harassed China's coastal areas. In the Ming Dynasty, coastal defense engineering systems, such as acropolis and new town as the backbone, land and water villages, camps, docks, platforms and beacon towers, were built in important coastal areas, which played an important role in resisting Japanese invasion.
4, the rise and fall of ancient national defense
The rise and fall of national defense is closely related to the political, economic and military situation of each dynasty. Throughout the history of China's national defense for thousands of years, it is not difficult to find that when the ruling class rises, the politics is enlightened, the economy is prosperous, the military is strong, the nation is United, and the country is unified, the national defense will be strong; When the ruling class goes downhill, political corruption, economic decline, military weakness, ethnic division, domestic chaos, national defense weakening and collapse.
From the whole history, in the early ancient China, that is, from the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period to the Qin and Han Dynasties and the prosperous Tang Dynasty, the national defense developed day by day, became stronger and stronger, and even reached its peak. In its later period, that is, from the mid-Tang Dynasty to the Song Dynasty, and then to the late Qing Dynasty, China's national defense declined gradually, so that it broke down and became out of control. In the meantime, although the Jin Dynasty was eroded before the prosperous Tang Dynasty and revived in the middle and early Ming and Qing Dynasties after the middle Tang Dynasty, on the whole, the basic trend of China's ancient national defense undertakings was from weak to strong, and then from strong to declining.
From the historical dynasties of Han, Tang, Ming and Qing dynasties, we can see that the cause of national defense has also turned from prosperity to decline. Although there was a short decline before the peak and a short revival after the decline, the basic trend of ups and downs has not changed.
(2) Modern national defense
China's modern national defense was weak, declining and humiliating. 1840, western colonialists broke through the heavily locked door of the Qing Dynasty and imposed cruel colonial rule on the Chinese nation with the advantage of building ships and strong guns. In the face of the invasion of western colonialists, the decadent rulers pursued the guiding ideology of national defense: "be prepared for danger in times of peace" and "be proud of betraying the country"; The idea of national defense construction is to "suppress the people with the army" and "wife and soldiers of poor countries"; The idea of national defense education advocated is "stupid soldiers and herdsmen" and "don't talk about state affairs"; The national defense struggle strategy is even "losing without fighting" and "being busy outside must be decided first". As a result, the country has no defense, the country has become a colony and semi-colony, and the people have been ravaged and slaughtered.
1, national defense in late Qing dynasty
1644, the Qing army entered the customs on a large scale, won the Central Plains, and finally established the Qing Dynasty. From Shunzhi to Kangxi, Yongzheng, Qianlong and Jiaqing, 177 was the heyday of the Qing Dynasty. However, after the "prosperous period of Kanggan", politics became increasingly corrupt and national defense became increasingly weak. 1840 The Opium War broke out and western colonialists invaded on a large scale. Since then, the Qing dynasty has been devastated and the rivers have gone from bad to worse. The country has no defense, civil strife and foreign invasion continue, and gradually becomes a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society.
(1) Military Equipment of Qing Dynasty
The military equipment of Qing Dynasty includes military leadership system, armed forces system and military service system.
In terms of military leadership system, before 1840, the Qing Dynasty successively set up the Council of Ministers, the Ministry of Military Affairs and the Ministry of Military Affairs as senior military decision-making and leadership institutions. After the Opium War, the "New Westernization Policy" was implemented and the Prime Minister's yamen was established. After Eight-Nation Alliance invaded China, the Qing rulers were seriously backward in armaments, trying to strengthen the army and secure the country by reforming the military system. Therefore, the Prime Minister's yamen was changed to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the original Ministry of War was abolished and the War Department was established.
In terms of the armed forces system, before the Qing army entered the customs, the army was the Eight Banners; In order to make up for the shortage of troops after entering the customs, the surrendered Ming army and the newly recruited Han Chinese were grouped separately to establish green camp; 185 1 year later, in order to suppress the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement, Xianfeng called on local gentry to compile and practice rural courage, and Xiang and Huai armies gradually became the main forces of the Qing army; After the Sino-Japanese Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, they began to train new troops.
In the military service system, the Eight Banners implemented the military-civilian system in integration of defense and civilian technologies. According to the regulations of the Qing Dynasty, all Manchu men over 16 years old are soldiers, and those under 16 years old are made into talents as reserve soldiers. Although green camp people were drafted into the army, they were incorporated into the army after enlisting, and their families lived with the camp. Actually, they are green camp people, professional soldiers, and they were released at the age of 50. Xiang Army and Huai Army are troops gradually developed by local township brave. After the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement was suppressed, Xiang Army and Huai Army replaced the Eight Banners and green camp and became the main force of the Qing army. During the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, most of the Xiang Army and Huai Army were scattered, and the Qing Dynasty began to "follow the western law and train new recruits". The new army adopts the recruitment system, which has strict requirements on the age, physique and educational level of enlistment.
(2) The territory of the Qing Dynasty and the construction of border and coastal defense.
In the early Qing Dynasty, we attached importance to the construction of border and coastal defense. In the struggle against domestic separatist forces, it stopped separatism, promoted the unity of all ethnic groups in China and safeguarded the unity of the country; In the struggle against foreign aggression, the country's territorial sovereignty was defended. During this period, the territory reached Balkhash Lake, Chu River, Talas River Basin and Pamirs Plateau in the west. North to Gorno Altai and Sayan Ridge; Northeast to the outer Xing 'an Mountains and the Sea of Okhotsk; East to the sea, including Taiwan Province Province and its affiliated islands; South to the South China Sea Islands; Southwest to Guangxi, Yunnan, Tibet, including Ladakh, has established an unprecedented unified and vast multi-ethnic feudal autocratic country. Since the Daoguang period, politics has become increasingly corrupt, and the border and coastal defense have gradually abandoned. Beiyang navy, the essence of the Qing army, "hard for a long time, soldiers do not practice driving." When you meet the enemy, hire a helmsman and call him a boatman, who is not familiar with water affairs. " (Draft of Qing Dynasty) The frontier defense is deserted, the artillery of the coastal defense fortress is in disrepair for a long time, the technical performance is backward, the shell power is small, and the range is quite close. Western colonialists took advantage of this situation and opened the closed door of China with a strong ship and a sharp gun. /kloc-After the middle of the 9th century, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan Province Province and Penghu were occupied by Britain, Portugal and Japan, while the vast areas east of the Wusuli River in the northeast, north of Heilongjiang and northwest were occupied by Russia, the Pamir region was divided by Russia and Britain, and Ladakh was annexed by British Kashmir.