To sum up, China, with a 5,000-year-old civilization, has experienced unprecedented humiliation due to the constant aggression and bullying of the foreign powers, repeated wars and defeats, making peace, ceding land and paying reparations. China has gradually changed from an independent feudal society to a semi-feudal and semi-colonial society.

What struggles and explorations have been made by various classes or strata in China, and what are the results?

1. Struggle-The deeper the oppression, the more intense the resistance. The people of China have waged a long and unyielding struggle to resist the reactionary forces at home and abroad and change their humiliating status. The struggles in early modern times include: the destruction of opium in Humen and the Sanyuanli resistance to Britain, the Sino-French War, the patriotic military and civilian resistance in the Sino-Japanese War, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement, the Reform Movement of 1898, the Boxer Movement, the Revolution of 1911, and the Sino-French War.

2. Exploration-It is a long and extremely complicated and arduous process for advanced China to explore various roads for national independence and social progress. It mainly includes the national salvation activities of the landlord class resistance, westernization, peasant class, bourgeois reformers, revolutionaries and national bourgeois radicals.

As a result, only the revolution led by the proletariat succeeded.

First, the heroic struggle of patriotic officers and soldiers in early modern times

Lin Zexu and 1 and 1839 Humen destroyed opium, which marked the beginning of China people's anti-aggression struggle in modern times.

┏ Lin Zexu-Guangzhou-Strictly observed.

Guan Tianpei-Humen┓

2. In the Opium War: Ge Dinghai fought bravely against the enemy and sacrificed heroically.

┗ ┛ Chen Huacheng Wusong

3. During the new frontier crisis, Zuo recovered the whole Xinjiang except Yili.

4. Liu Mingchuan in the Sino-French War-repelling the French invaders in Taiwan Province Province.

┗ Feng Zicai-Zhennanguan Victory

Zuo died in the battle.

During the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, Deng Shichang-Yellow Sea fought bravely and sank with the ship.

┃ led the heroic resistance of Xu Bangdao-Liaodong campaign.

┗ Ding Ruchang-Ahava-would rather die than surrender and commit suicide.

Second, the struggle of the peasant class

┏ 184 1 year, the people of Li Sanyuan fought against Britain.

┫1851-1864, an anti-feudal and anti-aggression peasant movement-Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement.

┗ 1899- 1900, the anti-imperialist and patriotic peasant movement-the boxer movement.

Third, explore bourgeois reformists, revolutionaries and radical democrats.

1, the political exploration of bourgeois reformists-the top-down Reform Movement of 1898.

2. The political exploration of bourgeois revolutionaries-the bottom-up bourgeois democratic revolution of 1911.

3. The exploration of bourgeois radicals-an unprecedented ideological emancipation movement and a new cultural movement.

Fourth, the exploration of the landlord class

1, Exploration of Landlord Class Rebellion during the Opium War

2. 65438+ the exploration of the landlord class Westernization School in the 1960s and 1990s.

Verb (abbreviation of verb) proletarian exploration

Under the leadership of the * * * Production Party in China and under the guidance of Marxism–Leninism, the people of China won the new-democratic revolution.

I./kloc-The war of aggression against China launched by the great powers in the 9th century and its influence

During the aid years from 1840 to 1900, the capitalist powers successively launched five large-scale wars of aggression against China, namely, the Opium War, the Second Opium War, the Sino-French War, the Sino-Japanese War, and Eight-Nation Alliance's war of aggression against China. Through these wars, the powers forced the Qing government to sign a series of unequal treaties, which seriously damaged China's territorial integrity and national sovereignty, and gradually reduced China from an independent sovereign country to a semi-colonial country.

the opium war

After 65438+ 1960, with the progress of the industrial revolution, Britain's productivity has been greatly developed; The first overproduction crisis broke out in 1825. Due to China's self-sufficient natural economic structure and the Qing government's "closed door" policy, British merchandise exports to China were seriously hindered, resulting in a large deficit. When the Humen Opium War led by Lin Zexu took place, Britain launched the Opium War on the pretext that "British life and property" were violated.

After the Opium War, China opened its doors and began to become a semi-colony of the great powers. The five-port trade, agreed tariffs, free trade and unilateral MFN treatment stipulated in the Sino-British treaty of nanking and its annexes have given the green light to the economic expansion of China by Britain and other western powers. However, the opening of China in this period was limited to the southeast coastal areas.

2. The Second Opium War

In order to further open the door to China, Britain and France fought the Second Opium War in 1856- 1860. During and after the war, the Qing government was forced to conclude the Tianjin Treaty and the Beijing Treaty. Through these two treaties, inland and northern cities such as Hankou, Niuzhuang and Tianjin were turned into commercial ports. The treaty also stipulates that foreign warships and merchant ships can sail freely in the Yangtze River port, and foreigners can travel, do business and preach in the mainland. In this way, the interests of the great powers in China have been further expanded, from the southeast coastal areas to the inland and northern regions. Russia used the Second Opium War to plunder the northern part of China, embezzling more than1.5000 square kilometers.

3. 1894- 1895 Sino-Japanese War

After the Meiji Restoration, Japan embarked on the road of capitalism, but also embarked on the road of foreign aggression and expansion. From 1894 to 1895, the Sino-Japanese War was launched to invade North Korea and China. The Sino-Japanese War ended in China's defeat, and the Qing government was forced to conclude the treaty of shimonoseki with Japan in April 1895.

Treaty of shimonoseki accelerated the process of semi-colonization of China society and caused extremely serious consequences to modern China society. The Japanese occupation of Taiwan Province Province in China seriously damaged the integrity of China's territory and sovereignty, and stimulated the great powers to set off a frenzy to carve up China. The huge indemnity aggravated the financial crisis of the Qing government, which was forced to borrow foreign debts at the expense of sovereignty, which made China's internal affairs and diplomacy further controlled by foreign powers. Allow foreign capital to invest and set up factories in China, so as to legalize the export of imperialist capital to China; Japan, on the other hand, used huge war reparations to expand its armaments crazily, so that it squeezed into the ranks of imperialist powers and quickly became the source of the war of aggression in the Far East.

4. Eight-Nation Alliance's war of aggression against China.

1900, the imperialist powers launched Eight-Nation Alliance's war of aggression against China under the pretext of suppressing the Boxer Rebellion, and forced the Qing government to conclude the "Xin Chou Treaty" with it. The Xin Chou Treaty is an unprecedented and serious unequal treaty, which further seriously damaged China's sovereignty, greatly strengthened the influence of imperialist powers in China, and made the Qing government a tool for imperialism to rule China.

The "boxer indemnity" stipulated in the "Xin Chou Treaty" has a total principal and interest of 980 million taels of silver, plus more than 20 million taels of local compensation, which is more than 654.38+0 billion taels of silver, which is a cruel economic plunder of the people of China; Its provisions on punishing the "first disaster" and prohibiting China people from joining or establishing anti-imperialist organizations reflect the harsh political slavery to China; Its provisions on setting up a separate embassy district in Beijing, sending troops to protect and dismantle the fort from Beijing to Dagu, and allowing countries to station troops are barbaric military control over China.

Second,/kloc-the responses of various forces in China to the invasion of foreign powers in the 9th century.

1. The corruption of the Qing government and the mistakes in making decisions against the enemy.

In the anti-aggression war in the late Qing dynasty, the Qing government often hesitated in the decision-making of peace and war, hovering between compromise and resistance. Repeated mistakes in decision-making are one of the main reasons for the failure of the war.

Before the war, relying on the mediation of the great powers, the preparations for war and defense were inadequate; In the war, "avoiding war and protecting oneself" and losing fighter planes repeatedly exposed the corruption of the Qing government and the incompetence and weakness of high-level decision-making in the war. 1894, the war was imminent. Li Hongzhang, who held the power of military diplomacy, did not actively prepare for the war militarily, but hoped for the "mediation" of various countries. 1894- 1895 During the Sino-Japanese War, Empress Dowager Cixi celebrated her 60th birthday and adopted a policy of peaceful compromise with Japan. In order to preserve his strength, Li Hongzhang vigorously pursued the policy of avoiding war and seeking peace, and adopted the strategic policy of passive resistance, resulting in passivity everywhere.

Although there were national heroes like Guan Tianpei in the Qing army, most of them lacked fighting spirit, and many generals were afraid of death or even fled.

2. People's spontaneous struggle

The invasion of foreign forces and the compromise of the Qing government aroused the spontaneous struggle of the people of China. Important struggles mainly include 184 1 sanyuanli people's anti-British struggle, 1895 Taiwan Province people's anti-Taiwan-cutting struggle and 1900 boxer movement.

184 1 sanyuanli people's struggle against Britain is the earliest heroic struggle of China people against foreign aggression in modern times. In the 1895 anti-cutting-platform struggle, people of all ethnic groups in Taiwan Province Province formed an uprising army and vowed to live and die together with Taiwan Province Province. The insurgents and some Qing troops who stayed in Taiwan Province Province elected Liu Yongfu as the leader, leading the soldiers and civilians in Taiwan Province Province to resist Japan.

From 65438 to 0898, the Boxer Rebellion first rose in Shandong. With the development of the situation, the Boxer Rebellion changed its name to the Boxer Rebellion and played the banner of "helping the Qing Dynasty to destroy the foreign countries". Empress Dowager Cixi found it difficult to "annihilate" the Boxer Rebellion quickly, so she tried to control its use by "wooing". /kloc-in the spring of 0/900, with the acquiescence of the Qing government, the Boxer Rebellion flooded into Beijing and Tianjin. The Boxer Rebellion made an important contribution to the struggle against Eight-Nation Alliance. 1900, Eight-Nation Alliance invaded Beijing, and Empress Dowager Cixi ordered the Qing army to "eradicate" the Boxer Rebellion on the way to the west. Under the joint strangulation of Chinese and foreign reactionary forces, the Boxer Movement and the patriotic movement failed.

3. The self-improvement movement of people of insight

While leading the fight against smoking, Lin Zexu collected and studied foreign situations, organized people to compile laws of various countries and chronicles of four continents, and became the first person in China to see the world. On the basis of The Chronicles of Four Continents, Wei Yuan compiled the book Atlas of the Ocean, which systematically introduced the history and geography of Southeast Asia, Europe and America. In this book, he put forward the famous idea of "learning from foreigners to control foreigners".

1860 The situation of "internal troubles and foreign invasion" greatly shook the rulers and gentry of the Qing Dynasty. In order to achieve the goal of "self-improvement", the Westernization School established a number of new military industries and new schools, and sent overseas students to study abroad to train new naval and army units. From 65438 to 1970s, in order to solve the difficulties in capital, fuel and transportation of military industry, the Westernization School also established a number of civilian industries under the slogan of "seeking wealth". 1895 China's defeat in the Sino-Japanese War declared the bankruptcy of the Westernization Movement.

19 After the 1970s, under the slogan of "seeking wealth", the Westernization School put forward the idea of "commercial warfare" by using its own economic strength to compete with foreign capitalism. With the emergence of Chinese national capitalism, the thought of "commercial war" gradually became an anti-aggression thought with great influence at that time. Ma Jianzhong and Zheng are the representatives of the early bourgeois reformists.

Third, the history of Japanese aggression against China in the 20th century

Japanese aggression against China in the early 20th century.

From 190 1 to 19 19, although the great powers did not launch a large-scale war of aggression against China before and during the First World War, they did not stop other forms of aggression and expansion.

1904- 1905, Japan launched the Russo-Japanese War on the land of China, and expanded its aggression to the northeast of China. 1905 After the Russo-Japanese War, Japan replaced Russia's colonial position in Du Nan, northeast China. 19 14, Japan declared war on Germany, sent troops to Shandong, China, occupied Qingdao leased by Germany, and occupied the Ji Jiao railway. 19 15, the Japanese took Yuan Shikai as the bait to make the occupation of Shandong a reality, and openly proposed to the China government "Article 21" aimed at destroying China. Due to the fierce resistance of the China people and the contradictory struggle among the great powers, the "Article 21" has not been implemented, but has strengthened Japan's aggressive rights and interests in northeast China, especially its economic interests in China. After Yuan Shikai's death, Japan supported Anhui warlords and Feng warlords to fight a civil war, resulting in a separatist situation. Hating the China Revolution and sabotaging the great cause of China's reunification.

2. The large-scale war of aggression against China launched by Japan in 1930s and 1940s.

Affected by the 1929 world economic crisis, Japan is eager to find a way out from foreign aggression. 193 1 year provoked the "September 18th Incident". 1932, the Japanese invaders renamed the northeast occupied area of China "Manchukuo" and fostered the overthrown Qing emperor Puyi as a puppet. Since then, northeast China has become a colony of Japanese imperialism. After the Japanese army invaded the northeast of China, it began to expand its power and speed up its invasion of China. 1932 launched a? The February 28th Incident and the North China Incident were initiated at 1935. By 1936, many places in North China had become the sphere of influence of the Japanese aggressors.

1936 After the "226" mutiny, Hirota Hiroshi, controlled by the military department, came to power to form a cabinet and established a military fascist dictatorship. 1936, the cabinet of hirota held a meeting, adopted the basic national policy, and formulated the aggressive policies of "ensuring the position of the empire in the East Asian continent" and "developing to Southeast Asia", which set the tone for launching a full-scale war of aggression against China and the Pacific War.

1937 The "Lugouqiao Incident" was a signal that Japanese imperialism launched a full-scale war of aggression against China, and it was also the beginning of War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression. At the beginning of the war, the Japanese army quickly occupied five provinces in North China, Shanghai, Nanjing and other places with excellent equipment and adequate preparation. However, Japan's war of aggression against China was met with tenacious resistance from the people of China, and the Japanese invading army was mired in a long-term war. During the war, the Japanese army massacred the people of China, created the Nanjing Massacre, plundered China's resources, carried out enslavement education and practiced colonial rule.

Stage feature scanning

I. Characteristics of the invasion of China by modern powers from 1840 to 1894

Through unequal treaties, the great powers seized a lot of "treaty rights" in China and supervised the Qing government to fulfill these so-called "treaty obligations". On the surface, under the situation of "reconciliation between China and foreign countries", China suffered further economic plunder and cultural infiltration. The great powers also occupied a large area of China, and Britain forced the Qing government to cede Hong Kong Island and Kowloon Division. The Russian occupied more than 654.38+05,000 square kilometers of territory in China.

The great powers used the unequal treaties to dump goods to China, and the export of goods became the main way for the great powers to invade China's economy in this period. The Qing government opened five ports on the southeast coast in the treaty of nanking and 1 1 trading ports in the Beijing Treaty. Great changes in foreign trade show that the China market has been linked with the world capitalist market. With the help of unequal treaties and low tariffs, the great powers hired a large number of comprador, established a set of product marketing network, raw material purchasing network and financial control network in China, and gradually controlled the China market.

Second, 1894~ 190 1 characteristics of the invasion of China by modern powers.

With the second industrial revolution, major capitalist countries entered the stage of imperialism. The form of foreign powers' invasion of China has changed: economically, it is mainly from commodity export to capital export; Politically set off a frenzy to carve up China; Militarily, the great powers tend to unite and launch Eight-Nation Alliance's war of aggression against China. The "open door" policy of the United States, to a certain extent, marks the formation of the alliance between imperialism and the massacre of China.

Three. 190 1~ 1945 the characteristics of the invasion of China by modern powers.

The great powers abandoned the plan to carve up China and adopted the policy of "ruling China with China". After the Sino-Japanese War, the imperialist powers set off a frenzy to carve up China. The rise and backwardness of Japan and Germany have disrupted the pattern of old imperialism's invasion of China and intensified the struggle among big powers. The Japanese became the fiercest enemy invading China. The competition between Japan and Russia in the northeast of China became more and more fierce, which eventually led to the war between Japan and Russia on the territory of China. Although the imperialist powers have contradictions and struggles on the issue of aggression against China, they are consistent in invading China to the maximum extent and safeguarding common interests.

With the Japanese ambition of dominating China expanding day by day, it finally launched the September 18th Incident at 193 1 and launched an all-out war of aggression against China at 1937. Japanese imperialism invaded China to exclude other powers, monopolize China and turn China into its colony.

Fourth, the characteristics of the invasion of China by modern powers from 1945 to 1949.

From War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression to the founding of the People's Republic of China, the United States supported Chiang Kai-shek against * * *, and continued to take Chiang Kai-shek as the agent, gradually forming a monopoly situation in China. The establishment of New China shattered the imperialist plot to invade China.

Conventional knowledge expansion

1. The war of aggression against China launched by the great powers is closely related to the development of the world economy.

The industrial revolution first occurred in Britain, and then spread to France, the United States and other countries. From 65438 to 0840, China, Japan and other countries were forced to open their trading ports, becoming commodity markets and industrial raw materials suppliers in western countries. The formation of the pattern that East Asian countries are subordinate to Western countries. With the progress of the second industrial revolution, the imperialist countries, in order to further expand the commodity markets and raw material producing areas under their control and find investment places for their surplus capital, formed a colonial frenzy to carve up the world. After becoming a capitalist country, Japan began to invade Korea and China, becoming the only imperialist country in Asia.

The world economic crisis from 1929 to 1933 aggravated the class contradiction and ruling crisis in Japan. Japanese fascists, supported by the monopoly bourgeoisie, launched a full-scale war of aggression against China in an attempt to turn China into its colony.

Second, the closed door policy has caused China's backwardness.

The establishment of western capitalist industrial society will surely bring the eastern feudal agricultural society into the new system of world politics and economy. Facing the challenge from the west, the rulers of Qing dynasty were ignorant of the development and changes of the world situation under the state of long-term isolation, and they were weak in coping with it. First of all, the rulers adopted closed-door policies and measures to restrict foreign exchanges and trade until the Opium War. Second, the self-centered concept of "China is superior to the country" has formed a closed-door mentality and is ignorant of the development and changes of the world situation. It was not until the Second Opium War that the Qing government gradually opened up, but there were many obstacles. Learning from the west in the limited opening up, although the national strength has gradually increased, it is still far from being a big country.

Third, the development trend of the two major contradictions in the social transformation of contemporary China.

After 1840, the development of China society showed two contradictory trends: from the perspective of being invaded by foreign powers, it was a downward decline, and from the perspective of accepting advanced capitalist culture, it was a progress. Before the Opium War, China was economically self-sufficient and politically autocratic. Capitalist powers are both robbers and gentlemen. When they invaded China, they also brought advanced capitalist culture to China. These include modern science and technology, capitalist mode of production and values of democracy and freedom. After the 1960s, China had its own modern industry, railways, ships and telecommunications, as well as a modern navy and army, and began to transform into a modern political system.

Fourth, national unity and unity-the fundamental guarantee of national independence.

War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression was a great national liberation war in the modern history of China. Japan's all-round war of aggression against China is the climax of imperialist aggression against China in the past century. Faced with an unprecedented national crisis, the awakened people of China, under the leadership of the anti-Japanese national united front, United sincerely and won an all-round victory in the Anti-Japanese War. War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression's victory was an important turning point in the modern history of China, which had a great and far-reaching impact on the development of China's history.

Due to the changes of times, leaders and international environment, War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression is very different from the previous anti-aggression war. The most striking difference is that this anti-aggression war was carried out under the leadership of the anti-Japanese national United front. The establishment of the Anti-Japanese National United Front is the fundamental political guarantee for China people to win War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression, and it has a vital influence on the rise and fall of the political forces of the two parties and the future of China after the Anti-Japanese War. Compared with the revolutionary United front cooperated by the first and second countries and the foreign anti-fascist front, the anti-Japanese national United front has its own obvious characteristics: extensive nationality is the real great alliance of the Chinese nation; On the basis of the second Sino-Japanese cooperation, the unity and struggle of the two parties run through the whole process of War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression. It is the cooperation between the two parties in power and the army; The anti-Japanese national United front is an integral part of the world anti-fascist struggle and has received extensive international assistance; After War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression, China's international status has been greatly improved, becoming one of the four great powers in the world and one of the founding members of the United Nations.