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During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the development of China porcelain entered a new stage. Jingdezhen kiln in Jiangxi province has sprung up everywhere. On the basis of the Yuan Dynasty, with superior natural conditions and a group of skilled porcelain makers, it became the national porcelain making center. "Artisans come from all directions, and utensils become the world" is a true portrayal of Jingdezhen's grand occasion at that time. The variety of porcelain is extremely rich, the porcelain-making technology is becoming more and more mature, the porcelain-making technology is becoming more and more perfect, and the level of porcelain-making technology has reached the peak of history. Porcelain is not only used by people from all walks of life in China, but also exported to many countries and regions such as Asia, Africa and Europe. Among them, blue-and-white porcelain and colored porcelain have a large export volume.

First, Chinese porcelain is sold to European countries.

According to foreign archives statistics, from the establishment of the Dutch East India Company to the thirty-fourth year of Kangxi (1602- 1695), 20 million pieces of China porcelain were trafficked to Europe, mainly including blue and white, multicolored and multicolored porcelain in the Ming and Qing Dynasties; According to statistics, from the thirty-second year of Wanli in the Ming Dynasty to the thirteenth year of Shunzhi in the Qing Dynasty (1604- 1656), 3 million pieces of porcelain were sold to the Netherlands, with an average of about 60,000 pieces per year. In the 12th year of Yongzheng (1734), 400,000 pieces of porcelain were sold to the Netherlands in one year. The British East India Company and the French East India Company also bought porcelain from China respectively; In the 12th year of Yongzheng (1734), 68,000 pieces of porcelain were shipped to England in the 39th year of Qianlong (1774), and 65,438 pieces of porcelain were shipped to England in the 15th to 46th year of Qianlong (1750- 178 1).

From the archaeological investigation, considerable achievements have been made in the salvage of sunken ships in the sea area between Europe and the Far East from 16 to 17 century. At present, the sunken ship that has been salvaged is Geldermals, a merchant ship of the Dutch East India Company, which sank in 1752 (the 17th year of Qianlong), with 90% blue and white porcelain on board. Portuguese merchant ships san Jago and Santa Catharina were blue-and-white porcelain wares of Wanli period, and Witte Leeuw, which sank in 16 13 (forty-one years of Wanli), was mostly blue-and-white porcelain wares of Wanli period. 16 15 (forty-three years of Wanli) sank Banda, which was also a blue and white porcelain in Wanli period. 1602 and 1603 (the 3rd and 31st years of Wanli), blue and white porcelain wares from Wanli period were also salvaged on Portuguese ships. The Spanish shipwrecks Sao Concalo and Concepcion sank in 1630 and 1640 respectively, and there were blue and white export porcelain in the late Ming Dynasty on board.

From a large number of China Ming and Qing porcelains collected by museums and private collections in European countries, it can be seen that many porcelains were exported at that time.

From the above information, there are blue-and-white porcelain, multicolored porcelain and wide-colored porcelain sold in Europe, among which blue-and-white porcelain is the most common, and blue-and-white porcelain in Wanli period of Ming Dynasty is called "Clark porcelain" in Europe. There are blue vases, dragonflies, cans, military weapons, boxes, holding pots, milk cups, soup pots, shaving plates and so on in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties. The shapes and decorations of some utensils are traditional China style, and some utensils, such as milk cups, shaving trays and soup pots, are the favorite shapes of Europeans. The local tulip pattern and the coat of arms of western figures in the decoration are obviously made for Europe.

Second, Europe's love for China porcelain

After China porcelain was introduced into Europe, it was immediately loved by the royal family, nobles and people from all walks of life. At that time, there was a trend of looking for golden boat porcelain, which was manifested as:

1. Buy and collect porcelain as a symbol of wealth.

Although China porcelain was expensive at that time, it was snapped up by the royal family and nobles. In their palaces, mansions and showrooms, China porcelain is displayed to show the elegance of its identity, and at the same time, it is also displayed as the property of the royal family. According to relevant records, there were more than 3,000 pieces of porcelain in the Spanish palace at that time. Porcelain is an extremely important item in the property list of the Queen of Portugal. King Louis XIV of France is a lover and collector of culture and art. The Palace of Versailles was built in 1670, and then the Toliano Palace was built in it, which is famous for displaying the blue and white porcelain of China collected by Louis XIV. In architecture, the palace draws lessons from the technique of "Nanjing Porcelain Tower" and is covered with colored glazed pottery bricks, also known as "Toliano Porcelain Palace". Not only the royal family, nobles and other people from all walks of life are also keen on collecting porcelain. A wealthy widow of a Dutch silverware artist, Mrs. GimmellenPoirot, was famous in the Netherlands for her fine porcelain collection in 1653. To this day, we can still see a considerable number of porcelain exported from China in museums and private collectors in European countries.

2. treat porcelain as a valuable gift.

For example, the bracelets of the Queen and Princess of Portugal are all made of China porcelain, and the gift from the Portuguese king to the Italian king is four pieces of China gold lacquer porcelain "prawns". The Queen's client ordered tableware for burning her portrait in China and presented it to meritorious soldiers.

3. In order to avoid the damage of precious porcelain, install metal ornaments on porcelain.

On China porcelain handed down in Europe, we can see that the mouth, feet, flow and handle of many porcelains are inlaid with metal ornaments or additional covers. This is a measure taken for fear of damaging porcelain. Ornaments are very popular in Europe, which not only protects porcelain, but also enhances the decoration of utensils, making porcelain look more magnificent.

In Europe, especially in the Netherlands, blue and white porcelain wares from China often appear.

We can often see China's blue-and-white porcelain from European, especially Dutch genre paintings around17th century, especially the blue-and-white porcelain called "Clark" in Europe in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. As can be seen from the painting, there are fruit bowls, kettles, cups and bottles. Others are practical, such as putting fruit on a plate; Some of them are used as decorations, such as tables and ornamental tables.

Thirdly, the production of European porcelain and the influence of China porcelain on Europe.

15 ~17th century, Europe is still in the stage of producing pottery and soft porcelain. For example, in17th century, Britain produced red pottery, imitating China porcelain; The Spanish established the China Royal Porcelain Factory in 1760; The Netherlands produced pottery in the16th century and imitated blue and white porcelain in China. France developed pottery production in17th century, and produced the first hard porcelain imitating Germany in18th century (1768). Germany produced soft porcelain, low temperature, mixed clay mixed glass in the16th century, similar to translucency. Austria was the second country in Europe to produce hard porcelain in the18th century. Italian soft porcelain was produced in16th century and imitated China porcelain, while hard porcelain was produced in 17 19. Sweden and Denmark established the Porcelain Factory and Royal Porcelain Factory in18th century respectively. In short, in the18th century, countries set up royal porcelain factories one after another to strengthen the exploration and research of China porcelain. So hard porcelain imitating China porcelain was first fired in Germany, and then hard porcelain was successively fired in Austria and other countries, ending the history of soft porcelain in Europe.

1. The influence of China porcelain on Holland.

In Europe, the Netherlands is famous for producing enamel and glass. 1584 (Wanli 12) Dutch potters bought white glaze and blue and white raw materials directly from China through the East India Company, and finally successfully copied China blue and white porcelain. Delfit Kiln near The Hague specializes in copying17th century blue-and-white porcelain wares from China, firing white glazed blue painted pottery, producing China-patterned pottery that Europeans like, and selling it to European countries. Europe calls this white glazed blue pottery Delfit, which has been in use ever since. Its achievement lies in organically combining China blue and white with European ceramic enamel technology, creating a unique style, and giving new artistic appreciation and enjoyment to European art lovers.

2. The influence of China porcelain on French.

French pottery production began in14th century. By the17th century, the pottery production in Naville in central France was influenced by a large number of China porcelain shipped by Dutch and British merchant ships, and began to imitate China porcelain. /kloc-In the 7th century, a pottery factory was established in Saint Cod, Versailles Palace near Paris, and under the command of King Louis XIV, flowerpots and blue-and-white porcelain imitation of China were produced for use in Versailles Palace. /kloc-in the 0/8th century, Visini factory was established. 1753, the factory moved to Severus, where glass powder and clay were mixed to burn soft porcelain. 1768, with the assistance of German craftsmen, the first hard porcelain imitating Germany was produced. 1759, Louis XIV bought the pottery factory and founded the royal pottery factory, which is famous for producing colorful glass.

3. The influence of China porcelain on Britain.

/kloc-in the 6th century, Lamberthz, London, England produced low-temperature tin glazed pottery, which was also influenced by China blue and white porcelain. /kloc-In the 8th century, the famous "Bow" porcelain factory in London imported porcelain clay from the United States, made hard porcelain, and made sculptures and imitation blue-and-white bowls and bottles. Decorations depicting pavilions, bridges, flowing water, willows and chrysanthemums are all the rage. Due to the popularity of China porcelain in Britain, people's demand for porcelain has doubled. In addition to the Bow Porcelain Factory, Chelsea Porcelain Factory was established in 1730, producing sculptures, toys, vases and tableware with raw materials imported from the United States.

175 1, 15 craftsmen set up the "woolsey Steer" porcelain factory to produce porcelain such as tea sets decorated with China landscape patterns.

4. The influence of China porcelain on German.

Influenced by China porcelain, Boettger first fired porcelain in Europe in 1709. Since then, the famous Maisen Porcelain Factory has opened, and its products have been continuously supplied to the European market. China's porcelains in the periods of Kangxi, Yongzheng and Qianlong in Qing Dynasty were the basis of imitation by Maisen Factory. First, the blue-and-white porcelain of China was copied, and the underglaze blue was successfully trial-produced in 1725, and then there were painted gold and colored porcelain. This factory has a group of painters who are familiar with China's painting art, and their skills are very high. Since the17th century, there has been a frenzied fashion of China's art and patterns in Europe, and the Meissen factory has also been affected.

5. The influence of China porcelain on Austria.

Austria is the second country to produce real hard porcelain after Germany in the early18th century, and established the Royal Porcelain Factory in Vienna. Like the porcelain of Mason Factory, the burnt porcelain is decorated with oriental patterns.

6. The influence of China porcelain on Italy.

/kloc-Italian pottery began to be produced in the 0/5th century. /kloc-In the 6th century, with the help of the Duke of Medici, a porcelain factory was established in Popoli Park, Florence, to produce soft porcelain imitating China patterns, which was called "Medici Porcelain". /kloc-in the 0 th and 7 th centuries, there was a pottery factory in Venice that produced blue-gray glazed pottery. /kloc-in the 0/8th century, the porcelain factory began to produce hard porcelain, and its style and pattern imitated those of Viennese and Meissen porcelain, with the artistic style of China. Copodimonte Factory and Docia Mi sponsored by Charles III also copied China porcelain.

Porcelain is the oldest craft in China, but now European porcelain has become the mainstream of the world's top products, many of which are famous luxury brands like LV and Chanel. ...

Elegant porcelain doll

Elegance Porcelain is the third largest luxury brand in Spain, founded by Elegance Three Brothers on 1953. Elegant works are good at depicting details, among which elegant porcelain dolls, which are famous for their realistic techniques such as lace, parasol and flower, all reveal a quiet and elegant temperament with a little sadness.

Ceramics museum, Gonzá lez Martí Valencia, Spain, St. Petersburg Traditional Museum, Barcelona Highland Museum, Spain, etc. They are all collectibles, and their most famous fans are Stallone, a muscular man, and jennifer lopez, a Latin beauty. Elegant and cheapest products are also above 500 yuan, and some even reach millions of yuan.

Bone China was originally called bone China, but people were not "elegant" about the word "grey", so it was renamed bone China. The so-called bone China is the porcelain clay mixed with bone powder and timely, which is light in texture and milky white. Porcelain can be vaguely transparent when placed under a lamp. 1794 was invented by the British. In the process of making bone China, animal bone powder (ash) is added, which is made of cattle, sheep, pig bones and so on. The cow bone is the best. Generally speaking, porcelain containing 25% bone powder in raw materials can be called bone porcelain, but it is recognized that the best bone porcelain in the world generally contains 5 1% high-quality bovine bone powder. This component can increase the hardness and transparency of porcelain, and its strength is higher than that of ordinary porcelain, so it can be thinner than ordinary porcelain. The greater the bone content, the easier it is to burn in the production process, so the finished product is more expensive. It is said that both the British royal family and Downing Street 10 use domestic bone China. Middle and upper-class Americans drink tea and use bone China cups.

The finished bone China is light, fine and hard (twice as hard as daily-use porcelain), not easy to wear and break, with moderate light transmittance and good thermal insulation, and its color is natural milky white unique to natural bone powder. Among them, the vessel with bone meal content exceeding 40% is ivory in color and belongs to finebonechina. Someone has done such an experiment, putting four bone China cups under a Rolls-Royce wheel. These four crystal cups are enough to support the weight of the RV!

Manufacturing technology of bone China

The main component of bone China is high-value natural bone powder. The preparation method is as follows: more than 30% of herbivore bone powder (tricalcium phosphate) is added into porcelain clay. In the process of high-temperature firing, bone powder is added, which eliminates impurities in porcelain clay, makes the product whiter and smoother, has fewer defects and has a special sense of cleanliness visually; The higher the content of bone powder, the lower the clay composition, which requires higher technology in molding and increases the difficulty of firing, so it is more precious. The finished bone China is light in texture, delicate and hard (twice as hard as daily-use porcelain), not easy to wear and break, translucent and moderately insulated, and its color is natural milky white. Among them, the objects with more than 40% bone powder are ivory in color and belong to fine bone porcelain. For example, the bone powder of Minghai bone porcelain in Japan is as high as 47%, and its color is between ivory and milky yellow. The manufacturers of bone China are mainly Europe and Japan. Only a few domestic manufacturers in Tangshan and Zibo produce and export. Japanese styles and patterns are conservative, emphasizing elegance; Some famous European porcelain factories emphasize design, and patterns are widely used, from personal creation to folk customs and myths.

Purchase and maintenance of bone China

Compared with our usual dishes, the price of brand-name bone China products is much higher. A porcelain bowl is about 260 yuan, and a saucer matching the bowl is about 300 yuan. A complete set of tableware for six people usually includes: a 9-inch flat plate for cold spelling; Four 7-inch flat plates for cold dishes; Four 7-inch soup plates with hot dishes; A big soup basin, two fish plates, six rice bowls, etc. A set costs about 5000 yuan or more. Of course, when buying, you can buy one by one and choose the dishes, cups and plates you need, so you don't have to stick to the whole set. White or set tableware with elegant patterns is the family's favorite.

Choose carefully.

Light weight, strong light transmittance and soft color are top grade. When you choose, the color turns yellow under the light, and there is a crisp sound when you knock.

Maintenance and maintenance

Be sure to wash it by hand, not in the dishwasher. If you really don't want to wash by hand, choose a dishwasher with "porcelain crystal" washing function.

Don't put it in the microwave oven to heat it, or it will corrode Phnom Penh.

The PH value of the emulsion must be between11-11.5.

When washing with clean water, the water temperature shall not exceed 80℃.

Do not immerse the hot cup directly in cold water, lest the temperature change too fast and damage the porcelain.

If there are scratches, you can polish them with toothpaste.

If there are tea stains, you can clean them with lemon juice or vinegar.

Many people know that the English word "china" has two meanings, one is China and the other is porcelain. Unfortunately, today's top porcelain is completely dominated by western brands. To find out why, a friend in Britain once joked that because westerners don't pay attention to food processing like China, they have to devote themselves to developing exquisite tableware to make up for the monotonous taste. Where is China like us? The rice on the plate is artistic enough. Where can we afford to pay attention to the patterns of rice bowls? There seems to be some truth in this joke.

However, considering the differences in food culture, western-style dishes are usually served in different plates, and the plates will be replaced every time a food is used up, so the number and size of western-style plates are more complicated than Chinese ones. Besides, westerners always pay attention to the taste of life. For furniture and daily necessities in the home living environment, in addition to practicality, we also pay attention to their shapes and patterns.

Before the British Industrial Revolution, porcelain was always a patent of China. However, after the industrial revolution, modern Europe, stimulated by China ceramics and relying on advanced science, quickly mastered the porcelain-making technology. They not only copied blue-and-white porcelain, colored porcelain and Dehua porcelain from China, but also developed many kinds of high-quality porcelain, including bone porcelain, which is recognized as one of the best porcelain varieties today.

The world porcelain producers are famous in Britain, France, America, Japan, Germany and Italy. If we divide British, American and Japanese porcelains by materials, they are famous for their bone porcelains.

The so-called bone China is the porcelain clay mixed with bone powder and timely, which is light in texture and milky white. Porcelain can be vaguely transparent when placed under a lamp. Animal bone powder (ash) was added in the process of making bone China, and now cow bone powder is used. This component can increase the hardness and transparency of porcelain, and its strength is higher than that of ordinary porcelain, so it can be thinner than ordinary porcelain. The greater the bone content, the easier it is to burn in the production process, so the finished product is more expensive.

Bone magnetism is the most famous in Britain, and the world's top ten famous magnets (bone magnetism) are all in Britain. Many brands have a history of hundreds of years, and the painted patterns and colors of these porcelain plates tend to be traditional. In the porcelain industry, they are already collections with artistic value.

France is a romantic country, and this humanistic style is reflected in porcelain painting, showing rich and changeable colors and patterns. Although German porcelain has a long history, it is also highly praised for its modernity, personalized modeling and bold colors.

Bone magnetism has only developed in Japan in the last 20 years, and many famous products have been produced. Most low-priced bone magnets are made in Japan. As far as design is concerned, Japanese shapes and patterns are conservative, emphasizing elegance.

The patterns of some famous European porcelain factories are widely used, from personal creation to folk customs and myths.

France, Germany, Italy and other places are characterized by pure porcelain, with pure white color and higher price than bone porcelain.

Different series of porcelain plates have different prices. Usually its pricing depends on the texture, manufacturing technology and painting design of porcelain clay. Although the price of high-grade porcelain plates is daunting, a careful appreciation of their texture paintings shows that the high-priced porcelain is indeed worth the money.

At present, the famous porcelain manufacturers in the world are Vickewood and Dalton in Britain, Rosenthal in Germany and Minghai in Japan. It is said that both the British royal family and Downing Street 10 use domestic porcelain. Middle and upper-class Americans drink tea and use bone China cups.

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