The characteristic of dual constitutional monarchy is that although the power of the monarch is restricted by the constitution and parliament, the actual power of the country is not in the hands of parliament, but in the hands of the monarch. The monarch is the core of the country's real power, and the cabinet is the institution for the monarch to exercise political power and govern the country. The prime minister is appointed by the monarch, and the cabinet acts according to the will of the monarch, and is only responsible to the monarch and not to the parliament. The constitutional monarchy of parliament is characterized by the fact that the actual power of the country is in the hands of parliament and government, and the government is responsible to parliament. The monarch is only a symbol of the country, unified but not cured, and the monarch is not the master.
With Prussia as the center, a constitutional German federal state was established through the dynastic war. 187 1 year 65438+1October 18 was established, including 22 German states, 3 free cities (Hamburg, Bremen and Lubeck) and the Imperial Province of alsace-lorraine.
After the establishment of the empire, capitalism gradually developed in various parts of Germany in the19th century. Since 18 15, the struggle of the German people for national reunification has been on the rise. 1848, the March Revolution broke out in various parts of Germany, but it was suppressed. After otto von bismarck became Prime Minister of Prussia, he restricted freedom in the name of unification, reconciled the contradiction between monarchy and bourgeoisie, and took advantage of Prussia's economic advantages to defeat Denmark in 1864 and Austria in 1866, thus forming the North-Germany alliance. 1870 ~ 187 1 year, France was defeated in the Franco-Prussian War and the southern German states were annexed. 187165438+1018, Prussian King William I was crowned Emperor of the German Empire at the Palace of Versailles in France, with Bismarck as Prime Minister. Prussia finally achieved the unification of Germany through the dynasty war.
The German Empire was the dictatorship of the Junk bourgeoisie. Germany's unification road determines the characteristics of this country's monarchy, courage and militarism. 18711The imperial constitution adopted in April 6 declared that the German Empire was a federal country with a constitutional monarchy. The head of the empire is the emperor, who is held by the king of Prussia. He has the right to appoint prime ministers and senior officials, convene and dissolve parliament, declare war and make peace, and is also the supreme commander of the army. The prime minister of the empire is the prime minister of Prussia, who is only responsible to the emperor. Legislation belongs to the Imperial Parliament and the Federal Parliament, which consists of 58 representatives appointed by the state governments. Prussia has a decisive vote in parliament and can veto bills passed by the imperial parliament. The imperial parliament is elected by universal suffrage, and its budgetary power and legislative power are restricted by the federal parliament. Emperors and prime ministers play a decisive role in the empire, and Yongke enjoys privileges in governments and armies at all levels.
The establishment of the economic German Empire swept away the main obstacles to the development of capitalist economy. From 65438 to the 1970s, the empire promulgated a series of bills which were beneficial to the development of capitalist economy, such as banking law, unified currency law, patent law, unified tariff law and unified measurement law. Through the Franco-Prussian War, the French plundered 5 billion gold francs in war reparations, iron ore and potash mines in alsace-lorraine, and accepted and applied advanced science and technology and production experience of other countries, which made the imperial economy develop rapidly. The economic crisis in the early 1980s and from 1890 to 1893 accelerated the concentration of industry and banking, and the industrial revolution was completed in the 1990s. Soon, the output of heavy industry surpassed that of Britain, ranking first in Europe.
In the early days of the German Empire, Bismarck was the actual maker of domestic and foreign policies. The starting point of its domestic policy is to safeguard the privileges of Prussia and Juncker and take care of the interests of the big bourgeoisie. The cultural struggle against the Catholic Church began with 1872, 1878 promulgating the socialist law, and 1879 adopting a high protective tariff policy. Foreign policy is a continental policy aimed at striving for hegemony in the European continent. Therefore, 1873 restored the alliance of Germany, Russia and Austria, and 1882 established the triple alliance of Germany, Austria and Italy. William I died in 1888, and his son Frederick III died after only 99 days in office. His grandson William II dismissed Bismarck in 1890 to strengthen his decision-making power. In the late 1990s, the bourgeoisie further integrated with Junker, actively expanded its troops abroad to prepare for war, openly advocated aggression and expansion, power colonization, pursued world policies, and demanded a new division of the world. At the beginning of the 20th century, domestic contradictions intensified, as did conflicts with established imperialism such as Britain, Russia and France, which eventually led to the outbreak of the First World War. Germany was defeated in the war. November revolution in germany overthrew the Hohensolen family in 19 18, and the German Empire ended.
Yongke
junkers
Initially refers to the children of nobles without titles, and later refers to Prussian nobles and big landlords. Originated in16th century, and basically disappeared after World War II. In German literature, Juncker is divided into different types, such as fighting Juncker, court Juncker, family Juncker and country Juncker. The country that really played an important role in German history was Yongke.
Junker in rural areas refers to the aristocratic manor owners in Prussia, mainly the descendants of German knight lords who conquered and colonized the Elbe River east. They combined the power of the Lord with the power of the countryside. /kloc-in the 6th century, in order to expand grain production, Yongke seized a large number of farmers' land east of the Elbe River, and used serf labor to manage the large manor economy that produced goods. Yong ke in the countryside is rough, violent and narrow-minded. 1653, friedrich wilhelm, the great elector of Brandenburg, gave Juncker the power to "completely dominate" the peasants and gave him a lot of economic benefits such as tax exemption. Juncker suffered a heavy blow in the Stein-Hardenbergh reform which started in 1807. /kloc-the rapid development of Prussian capitalism since the 0/9th century completely disintegrated the economic base of Yongke-feudal manor. Because of this, the Prussian dynasty gave Juncker important military and government positions as compensation. 1848 after the german revolution, junker's manor economy gradually turned into a capitalist farm, and most junkers began to be bourgeois, but there were still many feudal remnants. In Yongke Manor, farm labourers are still in the position of semi-serfs. Under the condition of retaining feudal land ownership, this way of gradually replacing serfdom exploitation with capitalist exploitation is called Prussian Road.
The Yongke landlord class is extremely conservative in politics, advocating absolute monarchy, advocating force and adopting protectionism for agriculture. Bismarck is its representative. 187 1 year, Prussia unified Germany from top to bottom, which marked the last form of the bourgeois rule of Yongke. Both the German Conservative Party in the Imperial Congress and the farmers' union outside the Congress represent the interests of Juncker. Most of the officers in the army were born in Juncker, thus branding the whole German Empire as Juncker. During the Weimar Republic, Yong Ke was hostile to the Republican regime and supported Hitler to take power.
First, the historical background of the formation of the Prussian road
Germany is a country divided by ethnic groups. The Holy Roman Empire is a loose alliance of princes in name only, with thousands of states at most. After hundreds of years of hard struggle, Germany finally achieved its first national reunification by Prussia in 187 1. However, due to the failure of two world wars, the country was once again divided and reunified only in recent years. It can be said that a German history is a history of national division, unity, re-division and reunification. In this sense, ethnic issues (or seeking national reunification) have become a main thread throughout Germany's modern history. Why is the rise of Prussia of historical significance? Because the great cause of German reunification was finally completed by Prussia. Then, in central Europe surrounded by a big country, a Germany with a large number of vassals and Prussia with a small population and territory, by what kind of "divine power" did it gradually grow from weak to strong and develop step by step?
16 18- 1648, feudal monarchs in continental Europe launched a protracted "Thirty Years' War" on German soil. This war made the British bourgeoisie escape the intervention of European feudal monarchs and win, but it made Germany completely decline. As the main battlefield of this cruel war, five-sixths of villages in Germany were destroyed and the population decreased by more than one-third. Farmers became poor and struggled with hunger and death. After the war, Germany was still a "country" in name only, fragmented and broken, with vassals everywhere. According to the Peace Treaty of Westphalia, France and Sweden, the victors of the Thirty Years' War, have the right to guarantee the internal affairs and diplomatic independence of the German states, and each state has the full right to sign treaties with any European country. In this way, the division of Germany was finally determined. To what extent Germany was divided after the Thirty Years' War, there is such a set of data to illustrate the problem: at that time, Germany had 360 independent countries and 1 500 semi-independent territories. Most states are small. In Westphalia, for example, each state has an average of just over 20 square miles. However, the monarchs of all these countries are very conceited. No matter how big or small a country is, it has established its own set of autocratic systems, sound state institutions and armed forces. An army sometimes consists of only 12 soldiers.
In this unprecedented situation of ethnic division, Prussia, with orderly social order, authoritative central government, efficient government and effective army, is very different. It should be noted that in modern Europe, the rise of any country is not a gentle and graceful journey. In that turbulent era when the blood flowed like a river and the law of the jungle prevailed, Prussia was destined to use with fire and sword to pave the way for its king from the beginning.
Second, the characteristics of Prussia road
(a) the pursuit of military politics, attach importance to national defense construction.
The emerging kingdom of Prussia is a small country with a weak family background. It was dubbed by the great powers as "a clay pot in a tin can pile", and it was in danger of national ruin and death at any time. Therefore, since the founding of 170 1 Prussia, the rulers of past dynasties have taken strengthening the army as their main means of survival and development.
Prussia's militarism is very prominent. Frederick II ascended the throne in 1740. Under his iron-fisted rule for more than 20 years, the number of Pu Jun's army has soared from 70,000 to 200,000, accounting for 9.4% of the national population, and the annual military expenditure accounts for 4/5 of the total government budget. At that time, Prussia ranked 10 in area and 13 in population in Europe, but its army ranked fourth in Europe. This number has increased to 235,000 in William II, the successor of Frederick II. Someone once described Prussia's militarism like this: "For other countries, the country has an army; For Prussia, the army owns a country. "
Prussia's militaristic nature is so distinct that its belligerence directly contributed to Bismarck's "iron and blood policy", which became the distant cause of the two world wars.
(2) Yong Ke has mastered the state power for a long time and has become the only class that can lead the great cause of national reunification.
Prussia is a brave country, where the strength of the civil class is very weak. On the one hand, due to the destruction of the war, the development of workshops and handicrafts is slow, accounting for less than 10% of the total national economy, and their market largely depends on the living consumption of feudal princes and nobles and the expenditure of government troops; On the other hand, when Britain and France had overcome the traditional shackles of guilds as early as the end of 18, German handicrafts were still controlled by guilds, ancient laws and regulations were still strictly enforced, and all paths that could promote competition and innovation were ruthlessly blocked by feudal shackles. This economic dependence and the inherent deficiency of its own strength have caused the German bourgeoisie to be timid and servile to feudal forces politically.
Farmers are also unable to resist the powerful feudal monarchy. 1625, a great peasant war broke out in Germany, but it was finally brutally suppressed. The thirty years' war completely destroyed the last resistance of the peasant class, and the landlord became the sole owner of the countryside. The serfdom of forcing farmers to serve hard labor has become a common system in Germany, especially in Prussia.
Marx and Engels had intended to unite the scattered workers' groups in Germany into a national political organization to promote the revolution. But this condition does not exist in Germany, which is economically backward and politically dispersed. At that time, the German working class was still immature. Most of them are craftsmen, and they basically follow the bourgeoisie. Moreover, due to the strong feudal forces and the betrayal of bourgeois liberals, the 1848 revolution was suppressed throughout Germany, and the workers' movement was at a low ebb for a long time.
Because the bourgeoisie and peasants are unable to complete the great cause of German reunification, and the weak proletariat is far from mature politically, this task has historically fallen on the Prussian aristocratic landlord class (Juncker).
(3) the kingship is strong, and at the same time, capitalism is developed on the premise of retaining Yong Ke's feudal privileges.
Yongke economy holds the lifeblood of the national economy. Yongke landlords monopolize grain exports and are also exempt from export duties. In the Prussian army, Junk occupied all the officer positions. The serfdom in Prussia is different from the early serfdom, which is the result of the development of commodity production. As grain and various agricultural products become more and more important commodities and prices rise, agricultural production becomes profitable. So Yongke landlords began to seize farmers' land and merge it into Datianzhuang to develop capitalist commodity production for the market.
Serfdom reflects only one aspect of the Prussian state system, and its deeper significance lies in highlighting the highly centralized monarchy in Prussia. The guarantee of this political system is essential for the rise of any modern European power. Russia under Peter I, France under Louis XIV and Prussia are all the same.
1848 after the failure of the revolution, Prussia did not restore the pure monarchy like Austria, but maintained the alliance between the landlord class and the big bourgeoisie. The nobles still maintained a dominant position in this alliance, and the king still had supreme authority. Although there is a parliament, the upper house (the upper house) is composed of dignitaries appointed by the king, and the lower house (the lower house) guarantees the majority status of the nobility and the big bourgeoisie by means of the unequal three-level electoral system. Therefore, the autocratic monarchy in Prussia can be continued and even consolidated under the guise of democracy.
Third, the reasons for the formation of Prussian road
(A) serfdom strengthened Juncker's political dominance.
From the perspective of social development, serfdom is a barbaric and backward mode of production. Serfs not only serve landlords free of charge, but also bring their own livestock and farm tools. They are arbitrarily deprived of their property and have no personal freedom at all. They were imprisoned in the landlord's grange and were not allowed to migrate. It is generally believed that the existence of serfdom will seriously hinder the development of productive forces. However, if we put this system in the historical background of Prussia's rise, we will find something unusual. Today, people can criticize Frederick II for "strengthening the autocratic system of military landlords and promoting slave education to his subjects" in Prussia. This is a retrogression in history, but it ignores the most basic fact, that is, the pillar of the Prussian kingdom at that time was nobles, and the strength of nobles was to occupy vast real estate and exploit serfs. From this point of view, without serfdom, there would be no brave, and without the support of brave, the powerful Prussian monarchy would only be empty talk.
(two) the implementation of mercantilism, focusing on economic development.
The main rivers sailing northward in Germany, such as Rhine, Weser, Elbe and Oder, all flow through Brandenburg, which gives Prussia a favorable geographical position for economic development. The rulers of Prussia also regarded industry and commerce as important wealth. They dug canals, built bridges and roads, unified the monetary system and implemented measures to protect tariffs to develop the economy. At the same time, Prussia also pays attention to exploring overseas markets. 1788 has exported pig iron 10 1000 tons to Britain. By 1980s, Prussia had established three trading companies: Eastern Mediterranean Trading Company, China Trading Company and Bangladeshi Trading Company.
(3) Encourage immigrants and accommodate Protestants.
Martin Luther's religious reform and the victory of the German Protestant Union in the Thirty Years' War made Prussia a a paradise on earth for Europe to escape religious persecution at that time. By 1703, about 20,000 Huguenots had moved from France to Brandenburg to settle down, accounting for 1/9 of the urban residents at that time. These people are all skilled craftsmen or businessmen with certain capital. As a result, French industry and commerce suffered serious losses, while Prussia benefited from it. In addition to French immigrants, immigrants from other countries also poured in. According to statistics, by 1740, the population of Prussia was 2.4 million, of which only foreign immigrants accounted for 1/4, reaching 600,000. Brandenburg was the hardest hit area in the Thirty Years' War. Immigrants injected great vitality into its revival, which enabled Prussia to achieve economic recovery and take-off earlier than other German states.
(4) Rulers have a strong sense of urgency and are not prone to corruption.
Different from the luxury prevailing in the European royal family at that time, several generations of Prussian rulers lived a puritanical frugal life that was almost self-inflicted in order to save valuable military and government expenses. For example, when Friedrich II's father, William I (who later shared the same name), was in power, the meanness of Prussian diplomatic envoys was "well known" in Europe. The distinguished members of the royal family, whether they are princes or princesses, even princesses or even the king himself, are poor in cooking and food, almost to the point where they can't eat. Because frugality has reached the point of meanness, people call William I "the beggar king" behind his back.
His successor Friedrich II is even more tenacious and hardworking than Gou Jian, the King of Yue. He devoted himself to diligence with extraordinary energy and slept only four hours a day. You must ask yourself every detail. He also called on the people to be diligent and thrifty, set an example, and absolutely prohibited the luxury and ostentation of the imperial court. He usually only wears military clothes, and he has only one dress in his life. Twenty years after Friedrich's death, Napoleon defeated Pu Jun's army in Jena and went to Friedrich's tomb in Potsdam. Napoleon pointed his whip at the generals under the tombstone and said, "If he were alive, we wouldn't be standing here today." .
(5) The ruling class can conform to the trend and push forward various reforms in time.
The ruling class in Prussia is not as conservative as the feudal nobles in other European countries and stubbornly refuses all changes. They are good at sizing up the situation, pushing forward the reform from top to bottom (forced by the situation, of course), and firmly controlling the leading power of the reform, so as to conform to the historical trend and avoid relegating themselves to power. Different from the reform of Habsburg dynasty in Austria, most kings in Prussia were able to persist in the reform rather than give up the achievements of their predecessors, which not only ensured the consistency of Prussia's major policies, but also kept the whole country upward all the time.
Take the reform of serfdom in Prussia as an example. During the Napoleonic Wars, Prussia suffered successive defeats and almost perished. The fiasco of the war and the signing of the humiliating peace treaty made Prussians more and more aware of the decline of serfdom society from the contest between feudal Germany and capitalist France. A group of people of insight, deeply influenced by the bourgeois ideology of Britain and France, loudly called for the reform of the old feudal order. In this grim situation, Prussia began a difficult reform. 1807 10 Baron Stein, who is in charge of state affairs, promulgated the October Decree to liberate farmers, which finally made Prussia take a big step on the road from feudal serfdom to bourgeois society.
However, the first round of reform was not thorough, which made the bourgeois liberals in Prussia very dissatisfied with Juncker's continued possession of a large amount of land and manpower. Therefore, they once turned to the Republic and opposed the monarchy in the European 1848 Revolution. In order to consolidate political power, collude with each other and coordinate interests, the government of Yongke landlord class promulgated the Law on Adjusting the Relationship between Landlords and Peasants in March 1850, thus finally completing the reform of serfdom that began in 1807. As a result of the reform, the capitalists got the cheap labor necessary for the development of large industries, and the bourgeoisie was satisfied with the monarchy; By collecting high ransom from serfs, a large number of ceded land and wealth quickly accumulated in Juncker's hands, and the landlord class also made a windfall; Only farmers went bankrupt, lost their land and livestock, became semi-proletarians in large numbers, and then became hired workers in capitalist factories and Yongke Manor. This "experience" of the Prussian ruling class provided an excellent "model" for the later 186 1 Russian serfdom reform.
(VI) The awakening of German national consciousness
The most important factor in the rise of Prussia is the human factor. The German nation has a strong desire to rejuvenate the country, which has been caused for hundreds of years. Since16th century, due to division, the German nation is not a political entity in the eyes of Europeans, but also regarded as a lifeless nation. It is this long-term humiliation and contempt that inspired the Germans' enterprising spirit of self-improvement and internalized it as the source of strength for Prussia's rise.
It is precisely because of this spirit that they are urged to learn advanced things from foreign countries and vigorously set up education. In this respect, the achievements of the Kingdom of Prussia are most praised by later generations-in order to carry out nationalist education, Prussia began to implement compulsory national education from 17 17, becoming the first country in the world to implement compulsory education. It is worth noting that in 1763, Friedrich II promulgated the school regulations, stipulating that children aged 5- 14 must go to school, and appointed veterans as principals to conduct paramilitary training for students. All these have laid a solid foundation for Prussia to form a disciplined and high-quality army in the future. 1809 After Humboldt became the highest education director in Prussia, the reform of the education system became the cornerstone of the development of science, culture and cardinals in Germany in the next 200 years. The University of Berlin, founded in 18 10, was the first new university in the world, which influenced the development of higher education in various countries in the 19 century.
In Prussia, military service and education are regarded as two basic obligations of citizens. According to statistics, among the major European countries in the second half of the19th century, Germany has the lowest illiteracy rate, and Germans should be ahead of European countries in reading, writing, calculation and practical application of scientific theories.
(7) Be good at using diplomatic means to maximize national interests.
Friedrich II, the early king of Prussia, and Bismarck, the later prime minister, were recognized as one of the smartest diplomats at that time. Although these people can be described as "treacherous, greedy and treacherous" in order to achieve their own goals, it is undeniable that without their superb diplomatic skills, it is hard to imagine that Prussia can survive and develop in Europe surrounded by foreign powers.
Uniting allies and isolating opponents is Prussia's most basic diplomatic strategy. For example, the customs union, which began to operate in 1834, is a great achievement of Prussia-it not only promoted the economic development, but also brought the whole Germany closer to it politically, which not only enhanced Prussia's ability and determination to lead Germany's reunification, but also gradually pushed Austria out of Germany politically and economically, killing two birds with one stone. The customs union is somewhat similar to the current European Union, and all countries will eventually move towards a unified national community through political and economic integration. Prussia is good at netting German states. As members of the customs union, these countries get material benefits from it. In addition, their development level has not even reached the level close to Prussia, so Prussia has become the center of the bourgeoisie in these States. These bourgeoisie regard Prussia as their economic pioneer and future political backer. In this way, Prussia began to leap to the leading position in Germany.
(8) The French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars were driven by external forces.
The military victory of 1805- 1807 made Napoleon occupy and control most of Germany, and Prussia became a vassal of France against Britain and Russia. In order to safeguard and realize the interests of the French big bourgeoisie, Napoleon carried out military occupation, political rule and diplomatic manipulation of Prussia, and at the same time carried out a series of local reforms in accordance with the model of the French bourgeois revolution. For example, cancel the privileges of the church and nobility; Abolish serfdom and relieve farmers of their feudal obligations to landlords; Get rid of ancient laws and regulations, cancel the rules and regulations, and so on.
Although Napoleon's bourgeois reform in Germany failed to persist because of frequent wars and strong obstruction by anti-French forces, it had a far-reaching impact on the future development of Germany. It is precisely because Napoleon's violence eliminated the feudal separatist forces and fostered the growing capitalist relationship that Germany has a truly modern industry and the German national bourgeoisie has developed by leaps and bounds. Therefore, Engels once said: "The creator of the German bourgeoisie is Napoleon ... he is the representative of the German revolution, the disseminator of revolutionary principles, and the grave digger of the feudal old society."
To sum up, it is through such a special development path that Prussia rose rapidly in a short period of 100 years and completed the unification of modern Germany, so Prussia has sometimes become synonymous with German spirit and culture. In a sense, the evolutionary history of a "Prussian Road" constantly gives us warnings and inspirations.
Looking back at the process of German military and political authorities' guidance to World War I, if they didn't consciously turn a blind eye to this trend, they were at least dull and insensitive. This is closely related to the social structure and political characteristics of Germany. In the process of transformation from traditional society to modern society, Germany has not undergone revolutionary social changes, and there are still many traditional feudal factors. Prussian officers' corps is particularly conservative in ideology. Most of them came from the Yongke nobles and had a special reciprocal relationship with the royal family. The officers swore allegiance to the supreme commander, expecting the royal family to recognize their privileges in return. [1] (p112) The Prussian officer corps is the elite and core of the German army. On the one hand, they are brave, loyal to the royal family and independent; On the other hand, they are afraid of the people and the loss of their privileges. They regard marching and fighting as their own area of responsibility and carefully guard against others. Fundamentally speaking, they are worried that people will be widely involved in the war and put forward reasonable demands in politics, economy and society, thus subverting the existing social structure. I am particularly worried that the workers will use the war to carry out the socialist revolution in Germany, establish a "new society" and shape a "new person" in Germany.
In this way, the elite of the army tried their best to limit the scale of the war and control the time of the war. Slifen believes that the only way to prevent the war from being infinite is to limit the war to the field of professional soldiers and maintain the balance of power between civil society and the army. The army just fought, quickly ended its actions on the battlefield and kept itself closed. Politics does not interfere in war, and the army does not interfere in civil society and industrial production. Treat war as a soldier's business. His ideas not only run counter to the development direction of war in real society, but also obviously ignore the widely accepted clausewitz creed. As early as 65438+30s, he earnestly warned his readers that war is not an independent field that can be divorced from politics, on the contrary, it is attached to politics. It is the nature of politics that determines the nature of war, not the nature of war. "War is the continuation of politics under another condition" became his famous saying, and no one tried to deny it. Shi Ruiwen tried to deny this, but it certainly didn't work in practice.
The difficulties encountered by Germany in carrying out the war are not only the backwardness of the concept of war directors, but also the troubles from the royal family. The royal family regards the officer corps as the guarantee of its survival. Therefore, those brave nobles who are loyal to the royal family but not necessarily successful are constantly stuffed into the senior officer corps, which reduces the overall quality of the officer corps. J.F.C. Fuller pointedly pointed out that "in France, this is political corruption, but in Germany, this is royal corruption".
He severely criticized William II, saying that he could not tolerate truly valuable soldiers, and that his army was solely for military parade. Mo Chi Jr. is a clown among a group of incompetent children. He has never been to a staff university. During his service experience, he spent most of his time as an uncle and an aide to the emperor. 19 14 He was 68 years old when the war broke out. He imitates his uncle in everything, but his uncle's staff system is too late. Fuller's criticism is a bit too sharp, but the basic facts are true.
Schruiwen's plan went bankrupt and the war became protracted. Little Mocky stepped down and Falkenhayn succeeded him as chief of staff. But Falkingham's idea of commanding war did not jump out of the circle of Slifen and Little Finger. Germany needs a new war director to adapt to the new war situation. Hindenburg and ludendorff became the darlings of the German army, and they brought new ideas. 1965438+In August 2006, Hindenburg became the Chief of Staff and ludendorff became the head of the General Logistics Department. They are the victors of the Battle of Tannenburg and enjoy a high reputation among the officers. Compared with Hindenburg, ludendorff's understanding of modern war seems to be more profound and comprehensive, and he also effectively used his power. From the summer of 19 16 to the end of the war, Germany was actually under a certain dictatorship of ludendorff in terms of war guidance.
Ludendorff is not of noble birth, but he is said to be of Swedish descent. He is regarded as the unity of "genius and madman". In his view, in the era of mechanization, war has a holistic nature, and the battlefield includes the territory of all belligerents. Without the distinction between front and rear, combatants and non-combatants, the people of all warring countries have become the targets of war. In this case, in order to carry out the war effectively, the country's economic system must fully adapt to the requirements of the war. All forces should be mobilized to go to war. Regarding the relationship between war and politics, he believes that in the era of mechanized warfare, the two are inseparable. "All clausewitz's theories must be completely overthrown. War and politics serve the survival of the nation, but war is the highest expression of the national will. " In his view, politics has simply become a slave to war. His understanding of modern warfare is profound, but politically conservative. He has a fixed prejudice against the concepts of democracy, freedom and socialism. He wants to mobilize all the people to join the total war, but he wants to limit their rights and interests by all means. His guidance on the war enabled Germany to reorganize its relations in manpower and material resources, politics and military affairs, army and society, and brought Germany's war potential into full play. But at the same time, it also unconsciously planted the seeds of completely subverting the social structure of Germany.