Egypt has a long history and ancient culture. Egypt is one of the four ancient civilizations in the world. As early as 3 100 BC, Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt were unified by menes in the south, and the first slavery dynasty was established. At this time, Egyptian culture has matured and hieroglyphics have been used to create Pharaoh's autocratic politics. Successive dynasties built many pyramids, sphinxes and a large number of statues known as the wonders of the world. From the seventh century BC to the first century BC, it was conquered by Assyria, Persia and the Roman Empire. It was incorporated into the Byzantine Empire in the 4th-7th century. In 640, Arabs invaded Egypt, and Egypt became a province of Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties. Although the post-Arabs changed dynasties many times, Egypt still maintained its dominant position and accepted Islam. 15 17 Turks invaded and became a province of the Ottoman Empire. 1798 French Napoleon I invaded and ruled for three years. 1882, the British army occupied Egypt and became a British colony, but it still belonged to the Ottoman Empire in name. After the outbreak of World War I, Britain declared Egypt a "protectorate" of Britain. Due to the resistance of the Egyptian people, Britain declared Egypt an independent country on February 28th 1922, but reserved the right to deal with national defense, foreign affairs, ethnic minorities and other issues.
1On July 23rd, 952, the organization of free officers headed by Nasser overthrew the Farouk dynasty, set up a "Revolutionary Steering Committee" and seized power. 1June 1953 18 announced the establishment of the Republic of Egypt, with M. Najib as the first president and prime minister. 1954165438+10 Nasser succeeded Najib as president. 1956, Nasser announced the nationalization of the Suez Canal, which defeated the joint military intervention of Britain, France and Israel. 1958, Egypt and Syria merged into the United Arab Republic. 196 1 year, there was a coup in Syria and the United Arab League disintegrated. Nasser died in 1970, and Sadat succeeded him as president. 1 971September1Egypt changed its name to Arab Republic of Egypt. 19811On October 6th, Sadat was assassinated and Mubarak was elected president. Mubarak gradually adjusted his original policy, emphasizing domestic stability, opening up democracy appropriately, dialogue with opposition parties, strengthening social security and suppressing extremists who create terrorist activities; Attach importance to the development of the national economy, implement the open policy, actively attract foreign investment, adhere to the simultaneous development of state-owned and private enterprises, and pay attention to improving people's lives. Diplomacy pays attention to improving relations with Arab countries. 199010/2, Speaker Mahgub was assassinated, Mubarak announced the dissolution of parliament on the same day, and held parliamentary elections on 1 10. The National Democratic Party won and remained in power. 199 1, the government put forward "putting domestic stability first", opening up democracy to a certain extent, easing relations with opposition parties and resolutely cracking down on crimes such as creating terrorist activities, violent incidents and assassinations; We will take prudent measures in economic reform and pay attention to social endurance.
Japan: The earliest historical work with exact records of Japan is Han Shu written by Ban Gu, a historian of the Eastern Han Dynasty. The book Geography of Yan Di called the Japanese archipelago "Japan", and the Japanese islanders accepted this title at that time. In 645 (the first year of Dahua), Japanese Emperor Kotoku ascended the throne. Through Dahua innovation, Japan was unified and officially named Japan. Japan changed its name to Japan. According to the Biography of the New Tang Dynasty in Japan, in the first year of Xianheng (670), Japan sent envoys to the Tang Dynasty. At this point, Japan has "learned a little bit about Xia Yan, hated its name and changed its name to Japan". The messenger said that he was famous for his recent appearance. "It can be seen that the name of Japan is related to sunrise. At least in 670 AD, it has been changed to its current name.
In the middle of the 4th century, a unified country, Yamato, appeared in Japan. At the beginning of the 5th century, the Yamato nation reached its peak, and its power has expanded to the south of the Korean Peninsula. In 645, it was transformed into a new dynasty, and modeled after the laws and regulations of the Tang Dynasty, a centralized state system with the emperor as the absolute monarch was established. At the end of A.D. 12, it entered a military feudal country with real power held by the samurai class, which was called the "shogunate" period in history. 1On July 8, 853, the United States, which had just become a powerful country, sent Perry, commander of the East India Fleet, to lead four heavily armed black ships and broke into Yokosuka Port. /kloc-In the middle of the 9th century, Britain, the United States, Russia and other countries forced Japan to sign many unequal treaties, and ethnic and social conflicts intensified. The Tokugawa era, which implemented the feudal policy of closing the country to the outside world, was shaken, and the local powerful factions Samo and Changzhou with capitalist reform ideas fell under the slogan of "respecting the king and resisting foreign countries" and "enriching Qiang Bing". 1867, 27-year-old Shibusawa Eiichi went to France to attend the Paris World Expo as a member of the Japanese delegation. 1On April 5, 868, Emperor Meiji promulgated five vows, which were the general program to promote national change and opened a powerful curtain for political reform. Since then, Japan has entered an era known as the Meiji Restoration. 1868, the reformists carried out the Meiji Restoration, abolished the feudal separatist regime, established a unified centralized state, and restored the emperor's supreme rule. After the Meiji Restoration, Japanese capitalism developed rapidly and gradually embarked on the road of aggression and expansion. 1894, Japan launched the Sino-Japanese War. 1904 provoked the Russo-Japanese war; 19 10 embezzled Korea. 1965438+participated in the first world war on August 8, 2004.
September 18th Incident:1931September 18, the Japanese army launched an attack on Manchuria, China, and fully occupied Manchuria on June 1932+0.2.
July 7th Incident:1On July 7th, 937, the Japanese army provoked the Lugouqiao Incident.
Nanjing Massacre:1937 65438+February13-1938 65438+1October, more than 300,000 Nanjing people were collectively massacred by Japanese invaders.
Attack on Pearl Harbor:194165438+On February 7th, the Pacific War broke out.
1945 In August, the US military dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan.
1August 945 15, the emperor announced the defeat of Japan to the Japanese people (original sound).
1September 2, 945, Japan signed the surrender letter on the Missouri.
1926, Emperor Hirohito ascended the throne, and Japan entered the Showa era. Japan was defeated in World War II and declared its unconditional surrender on August 1945. In the early post-war period, the US military occupied Japan alone. 1947 in may, the new constitution was implemented, and it changed from an absolute imperial state to a parliamentary cabinet state with the emperor as the national symbol. In 1950s, Japan's economic growth rate was 22.8%; In the 1960s it was11.1%; 5.3% in the 1970s; 4.5% in the 1980s; The average growth rate between 195 1- 1977 is
About 1 century, there were more than 100 small countries in Japan (some of them established diplomatic relations with the Eastern Han Dynasty). Later, these small countries gradually unified.
In the 4th century A.D., relatively large countries were established in Kansai, and it is said that the ancestors of today's royal family finally unified these countries. At that time, Japan included western Honshu, northern Kyushu and Shikoku.
Therefore, it will take a long time for this country to be unified. Therefore, it is difficult to make an accurate judgment on the exact date of the birth of Japan. According to Records of Historical Records and Records of Japan, the first emperor Emperor Jimmu was founded in 660 BC and acceded to the throne. The date of his accession to the throne is equivalent to 1 1 in the current Gregorian calendar, so this day is designated as the "founding day".
ancient times
Wensheng times
Since the Pleistocene, human ancestors have lived on the Japanese archipelago, and the formation of Japanese race and Japanese prototype is considered to be the rope age from BC 1000 to the 3rd century BC. At that time, several people or a dozen people lived in a thatched house with a vertical pit, and made a living by hunting, fishing and gathering, which constituted a society with rich and poor and classes.
Yayoi era
In the 3rd century BC, rice cultivation and the use of metal utensils moved from Korea to northern Kyushu. Rice farming technology has brought epoch-making changes to Japanese society, expanded production, produced differences between the rich and the poor, and made rural communities tend to be politically collectivized. The beliefs, manners and customs brought by farming gradually spread, forming the embryonic form of Japanese culture.
The era of great tombs
In the middle of the 4th century AD, the Yamato regime unified the separatist small country. With the unification of the country, the ancient graves, represented by the round graves before and after, spread to various places. This period was the period when many knowledge and technologies from China were introduced into Japan. In the 4th century AD, the Yamato regime attracted a high degree of material civilization in the mainland. In the 5th century, foreigners (naturalized people) from the Korean peninsula brought iron making, pottery making, textile, metal technology and civil engineering. At the same time, China's Chinese characters are also used. In the 6th century, Confucianism was formally accepted and Buddhism was introduced to Japan.
In the 7th century, Shoto Kutaishi devoted itself to political innovation, and took the "great innovation" as an opportunity to establish a centralized country with the emperor as the center. This practice followed the example of the Sui and Tang Dynasties, when it absorbed mainland culture more actively. By the end of the 9th century, more than 10 envoys had been sent to Sui and Tang Dynasties.
Nara era
In 7 10, the Japanese capital Heichengjing (now Nara and its suburbs) ushered in a prosperous period of a country ruled by law. But at this time, the poverty of farmers, the increase of vagrants, and the substantial collapse of the commons citizenship system caused by the expansion of manor began to expose contradictions.
During this period, due to the state's efforts to protect Buddhism, Buddhist culture, especially Buddhist art, began to flourish. For example, the bird culture that created Japanese Buddhist culture in the early 7th century; The unique baifeng culture in the late 7th century; In the mid-8th century, under the influence of the culture in the prosperous Tang Dynasty, Tian Ping culture embodied rich human emotions in a realistic way, and so on.
Compared with Buddhist art, the cultural pyramid of this period is a collection of leaves. In the 400 years before the middle of the 8th century, The Collection of Ye Wan collected about 4,500 songs of peace from civilians to emperors, which truly reflected the simple life feelings of ancient Japanese. In addition, Hongzhi (7 12), The Book of Japan (720) and China's poetry collection Huaifengzao (75 1) are all cultural heritages of this period.
peacetime
At the end of the 8th century, Japan moved its capital to Ping 'an (now the capital of Beijing), trying to rebuild the legal system. However, due to the collapse of the commons citizenship system, the country fell into financial difficulties. After sending the last batch of envoys to the Tang Dynasty in 894, it stopped, so it stopped absorbing a lot of mainland culture.
10- 1 1 century, Fujiwara's monopoly regime was based on manor, and its power was the most powerful. However, due to local political chaos and public security chaos, the samurai group became stronger. By the end of 1 1 century, in order to confront Fujiwara, the "imperial government" was implemented (referring to the late Japanese heian period, when the emperor was in office, the French emperor acted as the emperor's authority). Thus, the samurai entered the central political circle.
Heian period is the characteristic of China culture. Influenced by the Tang Dynasty in the 9th century, the culture of forbearance and Zhenguan in esotericism and Sinology is still very prosperous. However, after the direct communication with the mainland was cut off after the 10 century, Japan's unique aristocratic culture came into being. His representative works include The First Collection of Poetry, A Collection of Ancient and Modern Harmony Songs (65438+early 20th century), The Tale of Genji, the world's oldest novel (165438+early 20th century) and Essays on Pillow Grass (around AD 1000).
History of Japanese Warring States Period
The Middle Ages (12-16th century)
Kamakura era
At the end of 12, the Yuan Dynasty won the title of the first generation general who conquered foreign countries, and established a shogunate in Kamakura, from which the samurai regime was born, resulting in the opposition between martial politics and public politics (referring to court officials and nobles). /kloc-in the late third century, the samurai rule of the shogunate began to face difficulties, and the kamakura shogunate gradually embarked on the road of extinction.
Culturally, based on the aristocratic culture in the past, it absorbed the Zen culture introduced into Japan in the Song Dynasty and cultivated a vivid, realistic, simple and unique martial arts culture. In terms of religion, Kamakura Buddhism was founded by famous monks such as Fran, Qinluan and Rilian, and gained the faith of all walks of life. Zen Buddhism was introduced to Japan in the12nd century, and was valued by the Kanto samurai, and new trends appeared in the art field. In literature, the novel "The Story of Heiping Family" (the original was born at the beginning of13rd century), which is an outstanding representative of ancient Japanese military stories.
Muromachi era
/kloc-In the first half of the 4th century, after the conquering foreign general Ashikaga Yoshimitsu stabilized the Muromachi shogunate in Kyoto, the Wu family overwhelmed the government politically and culturally for more than two centuries. Because the Muromachi shogunate was established by gathering powerful names, the ruling ability of the shogunate itself was relatively weak. In January of the first year of Ren Ying (1467), Ren Ying's rebellion broke out, and famous soldiers from all over the country rose in succession. Muromachi shogunate was on the verge of collapse, and Japan entered the Warring States period. In the name of the warring States period, it became a powerful independent regime that ruled the local land and people.
In terms of culture, both aristocratic culture and martial artist culture are influenced by Zen. /kloc-At the end of 0/4th century, Beishan culture represented by Jingu Temple and Dongshan culture represented by Yinta Temple were very developed. /kloc-In the middle of the 6th century, Portuguese and Spanish came to Japan and introduced guns and Christianity. It was an era of active culture.
Modern (16 ——1mid-9th century)
Sentani
(Late Muromachi and Anshi and Taoshan Times)
After the Ren Ying Uprising, great names in various parts of Japan rose in succession, and wars raged, making people miserable. /kloc-In the middle of the 6th century, there appeared a lean man who was determined to unify Japan by force and end troubled times. He is Nobutaka Oda. In the third year of Lu Yong (1560), Nobunaga defeated Imagawa Yoshimoto's 40,000 troops with 2,000 men in a narrow wooden barrel and became famous at one fell swoop. Later, we gradually unified Zhang Wei and Feng Jingen, and prepared to attack Yin Shan and Yang Shan. During this period, Nobunaga built the magnificent Antu City. So nobunaga's era is called "An Cheng era".
In the tenth year of Tianzheng (1582), the change of Benneng Temple broke out and Nobuka died. Yukio Hatoyama is an important official of Oda. He defeated Akechi Mitsuhide and Shibata Katsuie successively and established his successor status. After that, Japan was gradually unified through the Four Kingdoms Conquest, the Kyushu Conquest and the Battle of Odahara. Later, he was named "Toyotomi's Family" by the Emperor and was awarded the post of "Guan Bai". Toyotomi Hideyoshi's era is called "Taoshan Age".
In the third year of Qing Dynasty (1598), Toyotomi Hideyoshi died in the Taoshan Castle. Feng Chen's family is divided into two factions: near the river (western army) and Wei Zhang (eastern army). As one of the five elders of the Toyotomi regime, Tokugawa Ieyasu launched the Guanyuan War in the fifth year of Qing Dynasty (1600), defeated the western army and established the Tokugawa regime. In the eighth year of Changqing (1603), the Tokugawa shogunate was established and the Warring States period ended.
Edo era
In the eighth year of Keinaga (1603), Tokugawa Ieyasu was made a foreign general and established a shogunate regime in Edo (now Tokyo). After that, the Tokugawa family ruled the country for more than 260 years. This period is called the edo period. Tokugawa shogunate strictly controlled emperors, nobles, temples and shrines, and tried its best to rule farmers who supported the wooden model system. In the 9th year of Yuanhe (1623), Guang Jia, the third generation general of Tokugawa family, came to power and ordered the country to be locked up. Foreigners are forbidden to come to Japan, and Japanese people are also forbidden to travel overseas, except Nagasaki and its border sites, which are open as foreign ports. Due to behind closed doors, Mufan system ushered in a stable period. However, with the development of industry and commodity economy, the management system of farmers' self-sufficiency collapsed, and the mufan system began to shake from the18th century.
The common people culture is the characteristic of this period. /kloc-From the late 7th century to the early 8th century, Luyuan culture was a samurai and merchant culture centered on Kyoto and Osaka (the Kanto natives in Japan called Kyoto and Osaka the top). Doll net glass, kabuki, ukiyo-e, literati painting and so on present a rich and colorful merchant culture.
Modern Japanese history
Modern times (1from the late 9th century to the present)
Meiji era
At the end of the edo shogunate, natural disasters continued, and the Tokugawa era was corrupt, making people miserable. Moreover, the financial difficulties of the shogunate made most of the middle and lower samurai more and more dissatisfied with the shogunate. At the same time, western capitalist powers knocked on the door of Japan, which has not been locked for more than 200 years.
Under the double pressure of internal troubles and foreign invasion, the Japanese gradually realized that only by overthrowing the Tokugawa era and learning from capitalist countries is Japan's way to prosperity. So a vigorous closing movement began. Samoan and Changzhou warriors played an important role in this movement to overthrow the Tokugawa era. 1868 1.3, a defector representing the interests of the bourgeoisie and the emerging landlord class, successfully staged a coup under the leadership of Kubo Junyi, Saigō Takamori and Hiroshi, known as the "three outstanding reformers", forcing Tokugawa Yoshinobu, the Tokugawa shogunate15th generation general, to hand over the political power, and the newly acceded Meiji Emperor promulgated "Wang This is the Meiji Restoration in Japanese history. Japan has since embarked on the capitalist road.
1868 (the second year of Meiji), Emperor Meiji moved the capital to Edo and changed its name to Tokyo. After that, a series of major reforms were carried out in politics, economy, culture, education and diplomacy. Japan's national strength is getting stronger and stronger. Later, China and beiyang fleet were defeated in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 and the Russo-Japanese War, and the Russian Pacific Fleet and Baltic Fleet were wiped out. Japan has become one of the imperialist powers.
Taisho Showa Times
Compared with the historical progress made in Meiji era, Emperor Taishō is called "the unfortunate Great Truth". During the reign of Emperor Taishi 15 years (19 12- 1926), his performance was not as good as that of Emperor Meiji, and he was trapped by encephalopathy all his life. Finally, he was forced to recuperate and was regent by Prince Hirohito.
1926, Hirohito ascended the throne, with the year number "Showa", namely Hirohito. For people in China, South Korea, Southeast Asia and the Pacific, the first 30 years of the Showa era were dark. At this time, the Japanese government was committed to aggression and expansion. 193 1 08 September 18, the "September 18th Incident" broke out, and soon the Japanese invaded Manchuria, China. 1On July 7, 937, the Japanese army provoked the Lugouqiao Incident and launched a full-scale war of aggression against China. 19411On February 7th, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor and the Pacific War broke out. During this period, it not only brought profound disasters to the people in China, Korea, Southeast Asia and the Pacific, but also brought great pain to the Japanese people. This is the darkest period in the history of Japan and Sino-Japanese relations.
On August 1945, the Japanese army surrendered. The U.S. military occupied Japan and changed Japan's autocratic imperial power system into a constitutional monarchy, and the emperor was preserved as a symbol of Japan.
1in July, 972, tanaka kakuei became the Japanese prime minister and began to pursue "multilateral independence" diplomacy. In September of the same year, Tanaka visited China and signed the Sino-Japanese Joint Statement with Premier Zhou Enlai on September 29th, announcing the formal establishment of diplomatic relations between China and Japan. 1978 In August, China and Japan concluded the Sino-Japanese Treaty of Peace and Friendship. Vice Premier Deng Xiaoping was invited to visit Japan and announced the official entry into force of the Sino-Japanese Treaty of Peace and Friendship. Sino-Japanese relations have been normalized since then.
1989 65438+1On October 7th, Hirohito passed away. Crown Prince Akihito acceded to the throne and changed his title to "Heisei".
& ltb> Japanese (500- 1600)
Japan is a mysterious place on the edge of culture, and the nearest place to the Asian continent is 100. Due to the isolation of geography and culture, Japan has formed a unique culture and is rarely influenced by the outside world. About equivalent to the Middle Ages in Europe, Japan's advanced culture began to concentrate on Honshu Island at the northern end of Japan's inland sea. Going east through Hakone-machiyama is Kanto, which is an alluvial plain and the largest rice producing area in Japan. The northern and western parts of Kanto are separated by a border with the Japanese aborigines named Xiayi, who have been living on the land outside this border since the Neolithic Age.
In the 5th century, Yamato Institute became the main political system. An independent tribe (so-called clan) is a person who holds real power behind the throne. The tribal leaders formed an aristocratic class, vying for control of the land and the throne.
In 530, Suvo ruled the regime at that time and cultivated the first great historical figure-Shoto Kutaishi. His vigorous reform laid the foundation of Japanese culture for more than 1000 years. In 644, the regime was transferred from the Su family to the family, and the family ruled the Heian period (794- 1 185). The new leader forced 645 years of industrialization reform, aiming at redistributing rice planting areas, formulating agricultural production tax and re-dividing the country into provinces. However, the influence and control of the royal family are beyond reach in many places, and the real ruling power has begun to shift to the hands of extended families, most of which have emerged by planting rice. The conflict between families led to the civil war and the rise of the samurai class.
The experience of medieval western Europe was also staged here. The central government of Japan finally collapsed, the local aristocratic forces expanded, and there were conflicts with barbarians in the border areas. The culture dominated by samurai elite is also born under the synthesis of these factors. Soldiers on the battlefield become soldiers who serve their masters, and their status and role are similar to those of European knights. At the end of the twelfth century, the military government took over the throne from the nobles, and the military government was led by the general.
Soldiers must obey the rules of soldiers, just as European knights obey the rules. The basis of warrior norms is loyalty to the master. Soldiers will accept leadership and protection. Relatively speaking, they must absolutely obey the master's command and sacrifice for the master's benefit at any time. Warriors attach great importance to their origins, strive to maintain family traditions, and often try their best to meet the requirements to get praise. A samurai must show strong demeanor, not a little cowardice and timidity. Soldiers expect to fight until they die a glorious death. They will fight to the end as long as there is breath left.