In the 5th century, Yamato unified Japan and actively developed friendly relations with China. At the beginning of the 7th century, Japan and Sui made peace. During the Tang Dynasty, Japan sent envoys to the Tang Dynasty nearly 20 times, the largest of which was about 650 people, and the least was 120 people. After many twists and turns, Jian Zhen, a monk of the Tang Dynasty, finally arrived in Japan, bringing with him knowledge of Buddhism, architecture, sculpture, painting, medicine and literature. The diplomatic envoys in Tang Dynasty thoroughly studied China's Confucian classics, Buddhism, medical writing, fork learning art, astronomical calendar, architecture, handicraft technology, political and legal system and customs, and absorbed China's advanced culture, reaching the peak of cultural exchange, thus greatly promoting the all-round development of Japanese society. For example, take Confucianism as the guiding ideology of reform, establish a bureaucratic system based on China's political system, and establish a rule of law politics based on Confucianism.
During the Three Kingdoms period, Zhuge Liang introduced the advanced farming techniques of the Han nationality into Myanmar through the ethnic minorities in the southwest border, and Zhuge Liang was respected by the Burmese people. Myanmar also has the Wuhou Temple dedicated to Zhuge Liang. In the cultural exchange between China and Italy, missionaries played a great role. Matteo Ricci is the most outstanding among many missionaries. Matteo Ricci came to China on the orders of Jesuits. In order to make friends with scholars and officials in China, he painstakingly studied Confucianism and became a Confucian scholar, calling himself a Confucian scholar. Matteo Ricci lived in China for 28 years, including 10, and published four Latin translations of books, which are the earliest western translations of Confucian classics. Kong Yu Thought, as a brand-new thought, was introduced to Italy at the end of 16, which once aroused strong repercussions in Italian ideological circles and society. After Matteo Ricci, a large number of Italian missionaries came to China in succession.
During the Yuan Dynasty, Kyle Polo lived in China for 20 years. After returning home, he wrote the famous The Travels of Marco Polo, which became the first book written by westerners to introduce China in detail.
2. Historical images of cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries are extremely difficult to grasp.
First of all, it is dynamic, not static. Since the apes left, human society has been in a dynamic state of development. The difficulty in grasping this dynamic lies in its diversity. Among many races, nationalities, countries and regions, the development of human society has many different development channels according to natural and social conditions: some develop rapidly, reaching the peak of a certain era a long time ago, and then quickly sliding into the boundless night; Some once existed, with distinct traces, but "evaporated" because of some natural disaster or war; Some have experienced setbacks, detours and even setbacks, but they have never returned, and they have been creating brilliant achievements for thousands of years; Some have been ups and downs in the long river of history; Others come from behind, and so on. This dynamic diversity has caused the regular phenomenon of unbalanced development of human society since ancient times, and also created the basic background of cultural exchange.
Secondly, it is three-dimensional, not flat. Civilizations and cultures created by human beings in different regions, different countries and different nationalities, like human society itself, are a three-dimensional network structure. Because of this, the communication between civilizations and cultures is naturally a three-dimensional network. If we only know and understand them in a straightforward way, then the cultural exchange in people's works will be pale and powerless, far from showing their complexity and unparalleled brilliance. Traditionally, we can divide culture into three categories: material (implements), system and spirit. At the same time, we should know that the specialized categories are numerous and endless. When civilizations collide and cultures contact, the inevitable communication between the connotations of these three different categories and many specialized categories is obviously a three-dimensional network. If we think further, we can easily see that when different civilizations and cultures collide, even the simplest, most direct and easily exchanged material (implements) culture embodies the rich content of institutional civilization and even spiritual civilization. At the same time, the system collides with spiritual culture, and the connotation of its communication also includes the cognition and understanding of different natural and social environments on which material (utensils) culture depends.
Third, it is bidirectional and multi-directional, not unidirectional. When discussing cultural exchange, people generally notice its two-way interaction. Compared with the one-sidedness, paranoia and subjectivity of one-way cognition, this kind of cognition is naturally a great progress. On this basis, people further explore the imbalance of this two-way interaction, that is, in a certain period of time, when different civilizations and cultures meet, one of them at a higher stage of development may have an oblique "cultural transcendence" over the other culture. However, when we carefully examine the above two-way movement, we will find that apart from the primitive development of human society in ancient times, there may also be a relatively pure two-way movement. With the development of human society, the cultural exchange since the classical times has contained a lot of cultural connotations in the two-way interaction, so the two-way nature of cultural exchange is actually a multi-directional interaction. This also proves the three-dimensional network model of cultural exchange from another side.
Fourth, when the Chinese nation communicates with foreign cultures, its splendid material and cultural surplus is often dazzling. When people focus on this phenomenon of cultural exchange between China and foreign countries, in fact, many things worthy of attention are often covered up. It is of great value to explore and explore these unfamiliar fields that are easily covered up. For example, in terms of system and spirit, it seems that the Chinese nation is not a super big family. On the contrary, it is suspected of being a "cultural super household". For example, in ancient times, Buddhism, * * * religion and even Christian civilization were all "full of temples" in China, while in modern times, the spread of Confucianism in China was limited to the Korean Peninsula, Japan, Vietnam, Singapore and Southeast Asian Chinese-inhabited areas; For another example, even at the material and cultural level, comparing the products of advanced and complicated labor such as silk and porcelain with the four great inventions, I am afraid that the Chinese nation is in a "cultural transcendence" in the material and cultural field of simple labor.
Such a colorful and difficult-to-grasp history of cultural exchange cannot be completed by one or two generations. This is a relay race, which is shared by people of all ethnic groups. As far as the history of cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries is concerned, China scholars are duty-bound. They should not only defend themselves, but also learn from and cooperate with their foreign counterparts. The research and writing of the history of cultural exchange is also a history of cultural exchange! This relay race has a long way to go. There are ancients before it and newcomers after it. A special book edited by a tutor and cooperated by senior teachers is the front stick of our relay race; We took this stick and sprinted hard, doing our part on this stick. Since the publication of this book, the gains and losses of this masterpiece have been evaluated by the next masterpiece. I am convinced that this eternal relay race will be better and more perfect than every one, and closer to the rich, complex and diverse truth of cultural exchanges in human history.
3. Historical Evolution of Cultural Exchanges between China and Foreign Countries During and before the Qin Dynasty, there was little contact with foreign countries, and few people know about cultural exchanges today.
According to legend, Ji Zi entered Korea after the demise of the Yin Dynasty and spread China's enlightenment thoughts. The unified Qin dynasty is famous far and near. In ancient India, China was called Qin. Today, in many western languages, China's name comes from the word Qin.
1-The cultural exchange between China, Warring States and Yuan Dynasty, which was introduced to Italy in the 2nd century, presented a new situation. Mongolia across Europe and Asia, not only restored the land traffic to Persia and * * * through Central Asia, but also made more frequent exchanges and expanded the scope, and went west to Europe directly.
The Maritime Silk Road connecting the countries along the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean became more prosperous and active on the basis of the Song Dynasty. The rulers of Mongolian and Yuan dynasties only hoped that religion would be a great Khan and a blessing, and adopted an eclectic policy.
In order to prevent Mongolia from invading to the west and unite Mongolia against the forces of * * *, the Pope sent priests to the East many times in 1245~ 1342, demanding a good marriage and setting up a church to preach. 1307, Mon Govino was appointed by the Pope as the Archbishop of Metropolis and the Orient, and about 6,000 people were baptized by him.
European priests also run businesses, engaged in trade, followed by Persian, * * * and European businessmen, of which Kelpolo is the most famous. Most of them left travel records, which helped Europeans understand the East. Kyle Poirot's book about the blue brocade that China transported to Egypt in the 4th century AD when Europeans were heading east 13- 14, with the characteristics of * * *, was unearthed in the cemetery of azzam, Egypt.
Adventure is particularly inspiring. Cultural exchanges between China and Persia and between the people of * * * are widely carried out through the State of Ilihan.
China's astronomical calendar, medical science, printing, block printing, post-delivery system, abacus, etc. were all introduced into Yili Khanate, and some spread westward to Europe, while printing may have been introduced into * * * from other channels before this. China's gunpowder was introduced to * * * countries in13rd century. Nitrate, the main component of gunpowder, is called "medium salt" by Persians and "China snow" by * * people.
The transliteration of the word tea in western languages, one is from Fujian dialect, and the other is from Mongolia to the west. Western astronomical calendar, mathematics, medical knowledge, etc. , also with a large number of Persians and * * * people from the east to China, promote each other.
Although Mongolian rulers have wars with neighboring countries, the commercial trade between Korea, Japan, Myanmar, Siam and Java has never stopped. In the Yuan Dynasty, seven ports were initially set up as shipping companies, and only Qingyuan (now Ningbo, Zhejiang), Quanzhou and Guangzhou were left after the merger.
The contacts between China and Korean scribes and Japanese Zen monks are extremely frequent and close. Porcelain-making technology was also introduced to Siam at this time.
China traveler Zhou Daguan arrived in Cambodia, and Wang Dayuan (see brief introduction to island planning) crossed the sea to reach the east coast of Africa. At this time, his understanding of Africa was better than that of the Song Dynasty. Ibn battuta, an African-Moroccan, has been to Quanzhou and Guangzhou.
Their travel notes became precious historical materials for cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries in Yuan Dynasty. From the Opium War (1840) to 1949, China's international status declined, and its contacts with foreign countries were not as free, equal and extensive as before.
However, for the sake of rejuvenating China, China has learned from Japan, Europe and the United States for nearly a hundred years, and its cultural exchanges, whether active or passive, are still quite close, extensive and in-depth, exceeding the previous period. After Meiji Restoration in Japan, China once learned from Japan.
Kang Youwei's political reform was based on Japan. 1905 after the abolition of the imperial examination, schools were set up all over the country, most of them hired Japanese to teach, and countless young people went to Japan to study.
They studied western science and technology and various social and political theories through Japan, and Marxism was first studied through Japanese publications. At the beginning of the 20th century, almost all China's advanced figures were educated in Japan, and after returning to China, they had great influence in various fields.
/kloc-In the 20th century, China established the Wentong Museum to teach foreign languages and translate western books. Later, the famous western social science and literature translated by Yan Fu and Lin Shu (1852~ 1924) became all the rage.
Western Christian priests came to China to preach and spread western culture. /kloc-in the 20th century, a few foreign students from China were sent to the United States, but it was after the 20th century that they went to study in Europe and America.
The study content of international students is much wider than what they learned in Japan before. Besides politics, economics, law, science, engineering, agriculture and medicine, many people study literature, philosophy, history, education, painting, sculpture, drama, music and so on. Fully absorb the western culture of European and American countries. China's school system at all levels takes the west as an example, and western churches have also established various schools in China, and cultural exchanges have penetrated into many aspects of society.
After "democracy" and "science" were put forward in the May 4th Movement, European style and beautiful rain were overwhelming, and the influence of Marxism was also expanding day by day. If we compare China in the 1940s with China around the Opium War a hundred years ago, great changes have taken place in almost all aspects of society, such as ideology, religion, literature, art, food, clothing, housing and transportation, and wedding and funeral customs.
Whether these changes are favorable or unfavorable to the development of China society, they are the result of cultural exchanges with foreign countries (mainly the West, first through Japan and then directly). After the Opium War, although the perception of China in the West has changed, the study of China culture has gradually deepened, and the interest in China art has not diminished.
In the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries for nearly a century, China has been influenced by the West. 1949 People's Republic of China (PRC) was founded, and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries entered a new stage.
4. For the significance of cultural exchange between China and foreign countries, please use the relevant knowledge points of Compulsory 3 about political and cultural life to answer: ① Respecting cultural diversity is the inherent requirement of developing national culture. Every nation's culture has its own essence, which is the product of its historical development and the crystallization of people's wisdom. In the historical reality of a nation, national culture plays an important role in maintaining social life and maintaining social stability. It is the spiritual foundation for the survival and development of this nation. To respect ethnic diversity, we must first respect our own national culture, cultivate it and develop it well. Respect for cultural diversity is an inevitable requirement to achieve world cultural prosperity. The cultural achievements of a nation not only belong to this nation, but also to the whole world, such as the achievements of the people in the two ancient river basins in law and literature, and the achievements of the ancient Egyptian people in architecture and medicine. The four great inventions of the ancient people in China and the philosophical and artistic achievements of the ancient Greeks have enriched the world culture with distinctive national characteristics and jointly promoted the progress and development of human society. Respecting and preserving different national cultures is the foundation of human survival and development. Personally, I think: 1 Strengthening cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries is conducive to the spread of Chinese culture; Second, it is conducive to advancing with the times and promoting the development of science, technology and culture; Third, it is conducive to economic development; Fourth, it is conducive to the improvement of comprehensive national strength; Improving the overall quality of the people is beneficial to China's position in the world; 5. It is beneficial to learn the lessons of closing the country; Sixth, it is beneficial to experience.
5. History of senior high school: Historically, cultural exchange between China and foreign countries (learning from the East and using the West) is a process of complementary exchange between the East and the West. However, more than 100 years before the trend of "western learning spread to the east", that is, from 16 to 18 century, there was an opposite exchange in the world, that is, "eastern learning spread to the west" The spread of eastern learning to the west has a history of more than 1000 years, which has had a far-reaching impact on the development of world culture.
The process of "learning from the East to the West" is unified with the process of social change in Europe. They gradually completed the introduction of China's culture, philosophy and social system, and made social changes and transformations. Europe also developed from this. So Tagore said that "the East has taught everything in the West"!
Before 16 and 17 centuries, there was a big gap in the development of civilization between Europe and China. Their study of Chinese civilization began with science and technology, including not only the "four great inventions" of papermaking, printing, gunpowder and compass, but also ceramics, gardens, metallurgy, shipbuilding, bridges, textiles, literature, philosophy, art of war, music, Chinese medicine, administration, military technology and art of war. Then gradually go deep into culture, that is, values, ideology and morality, then philosophy, and then rational thinking about China's social system.
At that time, in Europe, there were contradictions in the rule of feudal lords. On the one hand, the vassal States began to compete for hegemony. In order to compete for hegemony, we must strengthen our strength, but unlike the princes in China's history, the methods of European countries mainly focus on "agriculture" and unilaterally develop commerce; On the other hand, it is aimed at the "religious reform" of the Catholic Holy See, strengthening the personality and freedom of Christians and opposing the rule of the Holy See and its branches. In this case, "learning from the east and using the west" began in the west, which has internal driving force. They want to learn from China's advanced civilization in order to strengthen their national strength and break through Catholic autocracy.
China is a big country that has created advanced civilization, but it has declined because of its conservatism. After Zheng He's voyage to the West, he had no military purpose or economic purpose. The conservative forces generated by consolidating the centralized bureaucratic system in China during the Ming and Qing Dynasties severely suppressed social changes and basically brought civilization to a standstill. It was not until the European powers developed by absorbing and transforming the civilization and institutional factors introduced from China in the social transformation, and then invaded China by force, that China passively realized its decline. Some advanced elements advocated change and began to learn from the West, and China moved from stagnation to new progress.
This is the origin and process of "Western learning spreading to the East".
The spread of western learning to the east refers to the historical process in which modern western academic thoughts were introduced into China. Although it can also refer to the introduction of various western things into China from ancient times to the present, it usually refers to the introduction of European and American academic thoughts in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties and the early Qing Dynasty.
During this period, China people's attitude towards western things changed from initial rejection to gradual acceptance of western learning, and even demanded "total westernization". In the process of western learning spreading to the east, western philosophy, astronomy, physics, chemistry, medicine, biology, geography, politics, sociology, economics, law, applied science and technology, history, literature, art and so on. It is widely spread through the media such as Chinese in West China, overseas Chinese, various newspapers, books and new education, and takes Macao, Hong Kong and other trading ports and Japan as important windows.
What is most worth mentioning is that the "western learning spreading to the east" in recent 20 years is a process that really promotes China's overall prosperity. Moreover, this process is carried out with the new integration of "learning from the East and using the West".
Above, I hope to help you.
6. Detailed explanation of ancient cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries 1. After the preparations for Ban Chao's mission to the Western Regions were completed, Ban Chao and Guo Yao led their men to the Western Regions and first arrived in Shanshan (southwest of Lop Nur, Xinjiang).
King Shanshan was caring and attentive to Ban Chao and others. Later, his attitude suddenly changed and he became slack and indifferent. Ban Chao estimated that there must be a reason, so he said to his men, "Haven't you noticed that King Shanshan's attitude has become indifferent? This must be the reason why an envoy of the Northern Xiongnu came here and made him hesitate and didn't know who to obey.
It is obvious that a sober person can foresee what has not happened yet! "So, Ban Chao called the Shanshan waiter who received them and asked him unexpectedly:" I know that the envoys of the Northern Xiongnu have been here for many days. Where do they live now? " The waiter was surprised and couldn't answer at the moment, so he had to tell the truth. Ban Chao locked up the waiter to prevent the news from leaking.
Then, immediately called 36 men, a high drinking meeting. Ban Chao was drunk and deliberately angered everyone, saying, "You and I are both in a foreign country, so we should make contributions and achieve prosperity.
But now, it's only been a few days since the messenger of the northern Xiongnu came, and King Shanshan has been unkind to us. If King Shanshan had tied us to the northern Xiongnu, wouldn't we all become food in the mouth of wolves? What do you think we should do? "Everyone said with one voice," We are in danger now. Life and death are decided by Sima. "
Ban Chao said, "Nothing ventured, nothing gained. Now, the only way is to attack the northern Xiongnu emissary with fire at night. They don't know how many of us there are, and they will be scared. We can take this opportunity to destroy them.
As long as we destroy them, King Shanshan will be scared to death, and we will be finished. Someone said, "This matter should be discussed with Guo."
Ban Chao-da was furious and said, "That's the matter. Guo is a mediocre civil servant. When he hears this, he will expose our plan out of fear, and we will die in vain and have a bad reputation. This is not a strongman. "
All the subordinates agreed unanimously. Every day as soon as it gets dark, Ban Chao leads his soldiers straight to the North Xiongnu Messenger Station.
When it was windy, Ban Chao ordered ten men to hide behind the enemy's compound with drums. As soon as the fire broke out, they banged the drums and shouted loudly. He also ordered others to ambush on both sides of the door with swords, guns and crossbows.
After the arrangement, Ban Chao set fire to the fire, and at that time 36 people surrounded him, and they had a big fight. The Huns were in a mess, and there was no way out.
Ban Chao personally killed three Huns, his men also killed more than 30 people, and the rest of the Huns died in the fire. This is the origin of the idiom "nothing ventured, nothing gained".
The next day, Ban Chao informed Guo Yao about it. Guo Yao was surprised at first, and then there was an unfair expression on her face. Knowing that he was jealous, Ban Chao raised his hand and said to him, "Although you didn't act with us, how can I, Ban Chao, have the heart to monopolize the credit?" Guo Yao's face lit up.
Ban Chao invited King Shanshan to show him the head of the Xiongnu messenger. King Shanshan was shocked and shocked the whole country. Ban Chao kindly comforted him, and King Shanshan expressed his willingness to join the court and sent his prince to the court as a hostage.
2. Japanese envoys to the Tang Dynasty During the 264 years from the beginning of the 7th century to the end of the 9th century, Japan sent more than a dozen envoys to the Tang Dynasty in order to learn China culture. Its high frequency, large scale, long time and rich content are unprecedented in the history of Sino-Japanese cultural exchange.
Sending envoys to the Tang Dynasty made great contributions to the development of Japanese society and friendly exchanges between China and Japan. In 630 AD, Emperor Yangdi sent his first special envoy to the Tang Dynasty. During the more than 260 years from 630 to 895, the Japanese royal family appointed 19 envoys of the Tang Dynasty during the period of Nara and Heian, of which 3 were suspended for some reason, and 16 actually happened.
But once he only went to Baekje on the Korean peninsula, twice as a "farewell envoy" to the Tang Dynasty, and once as a "welcome envoy" to the Tang Dynasty because of his long time in the Tang Dynasty. So, in fact, there are twelve envoys worthy of the name in the Tang Dynasty.
Tang Shi, which has lasted for more than 200 years, has undergone great changes in organization, scale and traffic routes in different periods, which can be basically divided into four periods. Mission officials are ambassadors, ambassadors, judges and clerks.
In addition to about half of the helmsman and sailors, the members of the mission also include the Lord God, Bubu, Yin and Yang teachers, doctors, painters, musicians, translators, historians, and craftsmen from all walks of life such as shipbuilding, shipbuilding, carpenters, casters, forgers and jade workers. Accompanied by monks studying abroad, long-term foreign students, and monks and foreign students who have entered the Tang Dynasty for a short time and will return home with the group.
There are also security shooters. At first, the mission was composed of more than 200 people, two by boat, then increased to four people, and the number increased to more than 500 people, but only a few key members were allowed to enter Chang 'an.
Third, Xuanzang Tianzhu Jing Xuanzang was a monk in Ji 'an, Chang 'an, and became a monk at the age of thirteen. When he became a monk, he often studied Buddhism. Later, in order to gain more knowledge, he learned from teachers everywhere. Because he was smart and eager to learn, he soon became proficient in Buddhist scriptures.
But Xuanzang also found many mistakes in Buddhist scriptures, so he decided to study Buddhism in Tianzhu. He set out from Chang 'an for Liangzhou. At that time, the court did not allow the Tang people to leave the country. He was also found by soldiers at the border and was sent back to Chang 'an.
However, he did not flinch because of this, but escaped the border checkpoint and arrived in Guazhou. Later, with the help of others, he struggled out of Yumen Pass. Not only that, but also through the desert, its journey is very difficult and dangerous.
Gao Chang Wang Wentai also believes in Buddhism very much. He heard that Xuanzang was a monk from Datang and respected him very much. He asked him to give lectures and invited him to live here, but Xuanzang strongly disagreed. There is no way. He had to send him away, sent many people to follow him, and wrote to the kings along the way, asking them to take care of Xuanzang more. They walked through the snow-capped mountains and glaciers, and finally arrived in Tianzhu after thousands of difficulties and dangers. There is an ancient temple in Tianzhu, where there is a famous scholar. Xuanzang, who came here, learned from him humbly and learned all the classics there in about five years.
I have to say that Xuanzang is a very clever man, and he has a good knowledge of Buddhist scriptures.