An analysis of the nature, similarities and differences of major reforms in history
Human history is a complicated social evolution process. Since the emergence of human society, reform has been accompanied by social progress and has become one of the driving forces of historical progress. Although the reform is not as vigorous as the revolution, it promotes social progress in its own unique way. There have been many reforms in human history. Elective module 3 selects nine major reforms, which run through ancient and modern China and foreign countries, or success or failure, but also twists and turns. But they all played a certain role in promoting the progress of history, so they are remembered by history!
There are many forms of the 9 major reforms. Judging from the degree of reform, one is partial adjustment, which does not touch the fundamental system; First, thoroughly reform the old relations of production and superstructure, leading to fundamental changes in the social system. From the nature of reform, there are slavery reform, feudalism reform and capitalism reform. From the content of the reform, there are political reform, economic reform, religious reform, military reform and cultural customs reform.
Clarify the essence of reform
First, reform the slave-owning class.
Solon reform
Solon's reform touched on the possession of land, the main means of production at that time, which was a partial adjustment of the old relations of production and a democratic reform of the slave-owning class. So Engels called it a "revolution", but it was an incomplete revolution, the old forces were not completely eliminated, and the demands of the lower classes were not well met. Solon advocated the "golden mean" and tried to seek reconciliation between the two sides of the struggle through compromise. On the one hand, he improved the economic situation of civilians, on the other hand, he protected the political privileges of the nobility. He described himself as "holding a big shield to protect both sides". As a result, both sides did not please him, and he was finally forced to go to Egypt.
Second, reform the feudal landlords
In China, there are three main types of reforms of the feudal landlord class: one is to establish a feudal system, such as the reform movement in the Warring States period, to promote the transformation from slavery to feudalism; Second, the adjustment of feudal ruling policies, such as Wang Anshi's political reform in the middle of the Northern Song Dynasty, was a reform movement in which the landlord class adjusted its ruling policies to save the ruling crisis; Third, the feudal reforms carried out by ethnic minorities to learn the advanced culture of the Han nationality, such as the reform of Emperor Xiaowen of the Northern Wei Dynasty.
Third, reform capitalism.
/kloc-in the 6th century, the contradiction between the Catholic church and the people deepened, which on the one hand reflected the increasing corruption of the church, and more importantly, with the development of capitalism, the bourgeois anti-feudal struggle rose further. However, the bourgeoisie is weak, while Catholicism is strong and deeply rooted, which determines that the anti-feudal struggle of the early bourgeoisie is often carried out in the way of religion against Catholic theology. /kloc-The early bourgeois revolution since the 0/7th century has enabled the bourgeoisie to create a series of democratic ruling forms and political systems in the political field. Under the impact of the capitalist system's all-round pressure and demonstration on the feudal system, Russia in Europe and Japan in Asia have successively carried out top-down social reforms and gradually embarked on the road of social change from feudal system to capitalist system. /kloc-end of 0/9. Under the impact of the national crisis, in order to save the national crisis and develop capitalism, the bourgeoisie in China also launched the bourgeois reform movement.
1, European Reformation
The religious reform in Europe is a political movement against feudal rule and Roman theocracy under the cover of religion. The Reformation was a social, ideological and political movement that broke out in Germany in the16th century, and quickly swept through Western Europe. Luther was the leader of the German Reformation, and his core idea was "Justification by faith". As a result, the Bible was placed in the supreme position, and the authority of the Pope and the church was severely hit. Later, Calvin, a religious reformer, founded Karl Culture and Education and established a theocracy. The British Parliament established the Anglican Church through the "Supreme Act", and the king replaced the Pope as the highest representative of English religion.
2. Russian serfdom reform
/kloc-in the first half of the 0/9th century, capitalism developed in Russia. Feudal serfdom hindered Russia's social and economic development. Mainly manifested in the narrow domestic market and the lack of free labor. /kloc-in the middle of the 0/9th century, Russian class contradictions were sharp and peasant uprisings continued; 1853 ~ 1856 Crimean war fully exposed all kinds of disadvantages of serfdom, intensified all kinds of contradictions and urged rulers to carry out reforms. 186 1 year, Tsar Alexander II abolished serfdom, which made Russia embark on the road of developing capitalism, but retained a lot of feudal remnants.
3. Meiji Restoration in Japan
1mid-9th century. The Japanese feudal Tokugawa era faced a serious crisis. The Tokugawa era was overthrown by the anti-Japanese faction dominated by middle and lower samurai, and the Meiji government was established. In order to consolidate the new regime and establish a modern country, the Meiji government implemented a series of reform measures. Politically, "abolishing vassals and setting up counties" and strengthening centralization; Abolish the feudal identity system and samurai privileges. Learn from the west economically and develop the capitalist economy. The army implements the conscription system and builds a new army full of bushido spirit. Culturally, the policy of "civilization" is implemented. Through the Meiji Restoration, Japan changed its feudal backwardness, embarked on the road of developing capitalism, got rid of the national crisis and became an Asian power, but it also retained a large number of feudal remnants.
4. 1898 Reform Movement
After the Sino-Japanese War, the national crisis became increasingly serious, prompting the Japanese people to find a new way out. The initial development of national capitalism and the growth of national bourgeoisie laid the economic and class foundation of capitalist reform, and the early reform thought also provided the theoretical basis for capitalist reform. From 65438 to 0895, the "writing on the bus" led by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao marked the beginning of the political reform movement. Since then, the reformists have organized groups, founded newspapers and periodicals, actively carried out political reform propaganda and organized activities, and pushed the political reform movement to the climax of 1898. Soon, the die-hards headed by Empress Dowager Cixi staged a coup in 1898, and the political reform movement failed.
Westernization Movement in China, Meiji Restoration in Japan, and Russian Restoration 186 1.
Similarities: It all happened in11960s and 1970s. Under the same background, feudal countries are also facing the crisis of rule and moving towards modernization. The same goal is to get rid of the crisis and make Qiang Bing a rich country. In the same way, they are all top-down reforms. The content is the same, learning advanced production technology in western Europe reflects the irresistible trend of capitalist development.
Difference: In nature, China is a landlord class reform, while Japan and Russia are bourgeois reforms. In content, China did not make any changes to the feudal system, but simply introduced and learned advanced western science and technology and military technology; Japan and Russia reformed the feudal system and developed capitalism. In terms of ways, under the leadership of the yamen, the prime minister in charge of Westernization, and local representatives of Westernization, China carried out military, economic, cultural and educational activities closely related to capitalism. On the basis of armed opposition and elimination of feudal shogunate forces, Japan carried out a relatively comprehensive and extensive reform of learning from western capitalism, while Russia was reformed by a czar with real power on behalf of aristocratic landlords. As a result, the Westernization Movement in China failed, and it was still a semi-colonial and semi-feudal country. Japan got rid of the national crisis and became the only powerful country in modern Asia. Although Russia abolished feudal serfdom, the reform was not thorough.
Reform Movement of 1898 and Meiji Restoration
Similarity: In essence, it is the bourgeois reform movement. For the purpose, everyone wants to get rid of the crisis and develop capitalism.
Differences: In the social background, the Japanese ruling class is divided, and the middle and lower samurai are dissatisfied with reality; Emerging landlords and loan sharks are increasingly dissatisfied with their situation; The peasant uprising and the civil resistance struggle continued and became fierce, and the Tokugawa era became the target of public criticism. Capitalism in China has not been fully developed. Feudalism and imperialism are closely linked and powerful. As for the leadership, the lower-middle class samurai transformed from Japan to the bourgeoisie took the lead, overthrowing the conservative forces of the shogunate by force and ensuring the smooth progress of domestic reforms. Conservatives in China are very powerful and have real power; The reformists dare not mobilize the masses and rely on an emperor who has no real power, which makes the reform measures impossible to implement. In the international environment, when the Meiji Restoration took place in Japan. In the period of free competition capitalism, the struggle for colonies has not yet reached its climax. On the one hand, European and American powers are busy with domestic bourgeois revolution or reform; On the other hand, it concentrated on invading China, which objectively provided a favorable international environment for Japanese reform. When the Reform Movement of 1898 in China took place, world capitalism had already transited to the stage of imperialism, which set off the climax of dividing up the world. China has become the object of partition by the great powers, and the international environment is unfavorable to China's reform. The result is different: one defeat is 10%.
On the road of world modernization in the 20th century, the economic systems of the United States, Russian Federation and China were reformed and recognized.
(1) 192 1 year, Soviet Russia implemented a new economic policy; Russia develops production through fixed grain tax, state capitalism and commodity trading, and establishes market exchange between socialist industry and agriculture. It promoted the development of industry and agriculture, but by 1927, the new economic policy was abolished and Stalin's highly centralized economic system was established. 1932, the United States implemented Roosevelt's new deal. The United States uses the method of state intervention in the economy, that is, a certain planned economy to adjust the contradiction between capitalist production and marketing, avoid the confusion and blindness of capitalist market economy, and achieve the purpose of solving the economic crisis. Get rid of the economic crisis and promote the world trend of the great development of state monopoly capitalism after the war. 1978 China implements reform and opening up; On the premise of adhering to the socialist system, China overcame the disadvantages of the planned economic system, reformed the links in the production relations that were not suitable for the development of productive forces, liberated productive forces, and finally established a socialist market economic system. China's modernization witnessed prosperity.
(2) Understanding: the reform of the three major economic models is the adjustment of production relations, and its reform fully shows that capitalism also has plans and socialism also has markets. Planning and market are only economic means, not the essential difference between capitalism and socialism.
Analyze and understand the reasons for the success or failure of reform.
(1) Reasons for the success or failure of the reform
Whether it can conform to the historical development trend, keep pace with the times and change with the times is the fundamental reason for the success of the reform.
(2) To see whether the power comparison is conducive to reform, we should analyze it from two aspects: the resistance to reform and the power to support reform. The resistance to reform can be analyzed from both internal and external aspects, from the political, economic and cultural perspectives.
(3) Reform will inevitably harm the interests of some people, and will inevitably encounter resistance and will not be smooth sailing, which requires reformers' foresight and firm political courage.
(4) Whether the reform measures are in line with the actual situation at that time and whether they are effective.
⑤ Whether the internal and external environment at that time was conducive to the development and implementation of the reform.
(2) The regular understanding or enlightenment of the success or failure of the reform.
Reform is an important means to eliminate disadvantages and promote national prosperity. Every country and every nation must keep pace with the times and dare to reform in order to develop and progress.
(2) The reform is bound to be opposed by some people or groups, because it harms their interests, so it is arduous and censorship-oriented, and it will not be smooth sailing. This requires a firm spirit of struggle while being brave in reform. We must firmly believe that new things will definitely overcome old things.
(3) The reform measures must be effective, there should be appropriate personnel in the process of reform, and reformers should have foresight and firm political courage.
(4) There is no fixed mode of reform, so we should analyze specific problems and take the road of reform with our own characteristics.
The major reforms in Chinese and foreign history have left us many experiences and lessons, which are worth learning from.
6. Reform is an important driving force for social development. We should actively support reform, devote ourselves to reform and jointly promote China's reform and opening up.